Traditional Gender Stereotypes Research Articles

Связь установок гендерного неравенства у партнеров и эмоциональных состояний женщин в близких отношениях

Background. Negative attitudes towards members of the opposite sex, traditionally defined as sexism, include such a cognitive aspect as attitudes to gender inequality. Close relationships between men and women represent an understudied though significant context for the actualization of both hostile and benevolent gender stereotypes, as well as for the emotional states they cause. Objective. The study focuses on the relationship between gender inequality attitudes of men and women in close relationships and the emotional states of women as the main objects of traditional gender stereotypes. Sample. The sample consisted of 45 couples (n = 90): 45 men 20–38 years old (M = 28; SD = 4.9) and 45 women 20–38 years old (M = 26; SD = 5.16) who are in close relationships from 1 year to 15 years. Methods. An empirical study was carried out with the following methods and techniques: questionnaire “Scale of ambivalent sexism towards women” (adapted by E.R. Agadullina); questionnaire “Hostile and friendly attitudes towards men” (adapted by V.S. Krivoshchekov and others), short version; questionnaire “Scale for assessing relationships” (adapted by O.A. Sychev), the author's questionnaire of emotional states, interviews on the qualitative characteristics of close relationships. Results. The gender attitudes of women themselves and their male partners are related in different ways to the emotional states of women. The emergence in women of contempt, guilt, fear, disgust in relationships is associated with the presence of hostile attitudes in men. At the same time, women’s hostile sexism towards their gender is associated with their experience of loneliness in relationships, while benevolent sexism, on the contrary, turned out to be associated with positive emotions. Hostile paternalism attitudes in both women and their partners are associated with higher sexual satisfaction of women in dyads. Conclusion. The emotional states of women in close relationships are related to the gender attitudes of both partners. The results obtained make it possible to clarify the ambivalent specifics of the relationship between the cognitive component of sexism in the couple and emotional states of women.

Profiles of conformity to gender role norms and depression among adult Korean men

Socioeconomic polarization have consequences for men seeking a traditional male image; consequently, the pattern of conformity to gender role norms is changing. Taking into account an actor-oriented perspective, this study hypothesized that adherence to gender role norms would vary among male groups and would be associated with differences in mental health, specifically in terms of depressive symptoms. For verification, a Gender Roles and Health Survey was conducted with 897 Korean men aged 19–69 years between January and February 2022 to assess male gender roles, traditional gender role attitudes, and descriptive masculine norms, and to measure participants’ level of depressive symptoms using the 8-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale. Four latent profiles—“high conformity”, “medium conformity”, “non-conformity to gender stereotypes” and “non-conformity to male gender roles”—were identified. The non-conformity to male gender roles profile, which entails accepting traditional gender stereotypes, was associated with a significantly higher depression score. This profile also exhibited the characteristics of lower age, lower household income and being unmarried or not living with a partner. The non-conformity to gender stereotypes profile showed the lowest depression score. Based on the study findings, individuals who deviate from gender role norms, particularly in terms of self-ascribed masculinity, are more likely to experience depression. This suggests that the relationship between adherence to gender role norms and men’s mental health is complex and varied.

The gender reason for the readiness of future psychologists to implement a professional career

Being a social being, a person fulfills many social roles - in the family, in the work team, in the circle of friends, in the social environment (transportation, service sector, education, etc.). And these roles do not always correspond to the ideas formed in society regarding the functional purpose of men and women. Purpose - theoretical substantiation of the influence of gender identity on the readiness of future psychologists to pursue a professional career.
 Taking into account the gender characteristics of those acquiring the profession of psychologist indicates that the teacher acts with an understanding of the socio-cultural nature of the origin of the concepts of "masculinity" and "femininity", considers the personality of the future specialist above traditional gender norms and gender stereotypes, if they to some extent restrain and slow down the formation of psychological readiness for professional activity and the realization of a career. Understanding the gender-specific features of education is necessary not only for teachers to choose adequate methods and technologies, but also for the students of higher education themselves for self-improvement and self-development.
 Studying the problems of a professional career, modern researchers note that both men and women are interested in career growth (vertical career) and increasing their educational level and professionalism (horizontal career). People of both sexes are prestige-oriented, concerned about their positive professional image, decent pay, and have a high sense of responsibility. However, there is also a significant difference in the level of professional career success of women and men.

Boys don't cry (or kiss or dance): A computational linguistic lens into gendered actions in film.

Contemporary media is full of images that reflect traditional gender notions and stereotypes, some of which may perpetuate harmful gender representations. In an effort to highlight the occurrence of these adverse portrayals, researchers have proposed machine-learning methods to identify stereotypes in the language patterns found in character dialogues. However, not all of the harmful stereotypes are communicated just through dialogue. As a complementary approach, we present a large-scale machine-learning framework that automatically identifies character's actions from scene descriptions found in movie scripts. For this work, we collected 1.2+ million scene descriptions from 912 movie scripts, with more than 50 thousand actions and 20 thousand movie characters. Our framework allow us to study systematic gender differences in movie portrayals at a scale. We show this through a series of statistical analyses that highlight differences in gender portrayals. Our findings provide further evidence to claims from prior media studies including: (i) male characters display higher agency than female characters; (ii) female actors are more frequently the subject of gaze, and (iii) male characters are less likely to display affection. We hope that these data resources and findings help raise awareness on portrayals of character actions that reflect harmful gender stereotypes, and demonstrate novel possibilities for computational approaches in media analysis.

30 Years Later, Re-Examining the “Pretty Soldier”

December of 2021 marks the 30th anniversary of Naoko Takeuchi’s Bishojo Senshi Sailor Moon (Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon) manga (1991-1997), and March of 2022 will mark the 30th anniversary of Toei Animation’s Bishojo Senshi Sailor Moon anime (1992-1997). The series follows Sailor Moon as she defends Tokyo and the galaxy against alien enemies. While there seems to be controversy over whether Sailor Moon can be read as a feminist text, Sailor Moon still maintains its status as a feminist and queer magical girl series. Although there has been some scholarship on the magical girl genre and gender roles in manga and anime, there has not been much written about Sailor Moon specifically. As an influential series that is still relevant in pop culture, further analysis of this text is necessary to identify its feminist and queer nature. Despite being three decades old, Sailor Moon still maintains its status as a feminist and queer magical girl series. My argument is that on the surface, the Sailor Moon franchise appears to be a heteronormative and an (arguably) antifeminist series with traditional heterosexual relationships and gender stereotypes, but upon closer examination, the manga and anime series subvert patriarchal and gender stereotypes in both obvious and discrete ways.

Goals, motives and collisions of women's running practices in the light of gender approach

According to the ideas dominating in scientific discourse, female stayers of the twentieth century had to overcome gender stereotypes for a long time and in a tense struggle, according to which long running deprives them of "femininity" and threatens reproductive function. The article shows that the reasons for the long negative attitude of society towards physical culture and sports women's running are much more diverse and historically deepened, they go far beyond the sphere of training and competitive activity and "pure" physiology, having a socio-culturally determined ideological basis. The objectives of the article: to determine the types of women's running practices; to analyze the goals and motives of the running activities of their participants; to identify the causes of social conflicts generated by these practices and ways to overcome them. The main types of women's running practices are ritual competitive and out-of-competition running, festive competitive running, wellness and sports running. Running was used by women to achieve the following goals: marriage, material reward, pleasing the gods, transition to a new social group, magical influence, emancipation, physical development and setting records. The motives of running practices were gaining patronage, ensuring the well-being of the community, confirming their gender and age fullness, acquiring magical abilities, overcoming the scarcity of life, health care, self-realization, achieving equality with men in competitive activities and opportunities provided by society to outstanding athletes. The collisions of women's running practices are mainly associated with the mythological, religious and philosophical misogyny of traditional societies and gender stereotypes of modern times, according to which prolonged running locomotion does not correspond to the gender expecta-tions of society, the norms of decency and causes irreparable harm to women's health. Largely due to the selfless struggle of runners for equality in realizing their athletic potential, women's identity today is associated not only with femininity, and at the last Olympics in Tokyo, gender parity of participants was achieved for the first time.

The Right (Wo)Man for the Job? Exploring the Role of Gender when Challenging Gender Stereotypes with a Social Robot

Recent works have identified both risks and opportunities afforded by robot gendering. Specifically, robot gendering risks the propagation of harmful gender stereotypes, but may positively influence robot acceptance/impact, and/or actually offer a vehicle with which to educate about and challenge traditional gender stereotypes. Our work sits at the intersection of these ideas, to explore whether robot gendering might impact robot credibility and persuasiveness specifically when that robot is being used to try and dispel gender stereotypes and change interactant attitudes. Whilst we demonstrate no universal impact of robot gendering on first impressions of the robot, we demonstrate complex interactions between robot gendering, interactant gender and observer gender which emerge when the robot engages in challenging gender stereotypes. Combined with previous work, our results paint a mixed picture regarding how best to utilise robot gendering when challenging gender stereotypes this way. Specifically, whilst we find some potential evidence in favour of utilising male presenting robots for maximum impact in this context, we question whether this actually reflects the kind of gender biases we actually set out to challenge with this work.

“She was willing to send me there”: Intrafamilial child sexual abuse, exploitation and trafficking of boys

BackgroundBoys subject to intrafamilial child sexual exploitation and abuse (CSEA) - in particular, cases which begin as incest and later evolve into child trafficking for sexual exploitation - face many barriers in disclosing their exploitation, often leaving victims and survivors feeling isolated from society and dismissed or mishandled by service providers such as law enforcement officers, child protection specialists, medical staff and mental health professionals. ObjectiveThis study explores the unique characteristics of intrafamilial CSEA through the sex trafficking of boys, and the barriers to disclosure and recovery experienced by male victims and survivors. Participants and settingTen adult male survivors of intrafamilial child trafficking for sexual exploitation were interviewed multiple times to gain a deeper understanding of intrafamilial CSEA and how it compares and contrasts with non-familial CSEA. Participants in this study primarily came from North America. MethodologyMultiple semi-structured online interviews were conducted with these 10 adult male survivors because they experienced 1) intrafamilial CSEA and 2) being trafficked by their families to be sexually exploited by non-familial perpetrators. The participants were then asked to compare and contrast intrafamilial and non-familial CSEA. The research team employed a descriptive phenomenological approach and interview transcripts were coded, analyzed, and compared to identify patterns of non-verbal CSEA indicators and thematic narratives. The study also explored the internal and external barriers to disclosure reported by participants. Trauma-informed, person-centered practices were used throughout the entirety of the study to minimize harm to participants. The research team employed a co-productive approach using participants' initial interviews and feedback to formulate new questions for later rounds of interviews and by having the participants confirm the accuracy of their respective quotes and case summaries. Results and discussionThis study highlights several CSEA modalities, such as “boy-swap” events and local/national/transnational trafficking rings engaged in CSEA of boys. It also discusses how survivors' experiences differed between intrafamilial and non-familial CSEA and trafficking, and how familial settings may facilitate concealment of CSEA. Participants described various modus operandi used by abusers, traffickers, and buyers of all genders. While all 10 intrafamilial CSEA cases included male perpetrators, female perpetrators were also present in nine of them. In addition, participants identified various psychological and physiological CSEA and trafficking indicators that evidenced their victimization during their childhood years. All 10 survivors reported long-term health consequences into adulthood and scored highly on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) questionnaires. Recommendations and conclusionFindings underscore the importance of trauma-informed practices for identifying, liberating, and rehabilitating victims and survivors. Participants reported receiving more effective assistance from service providers that exhibited trauma-informed practices. Traditional gender stereotypes may hinder the ability of service providers to recognize and provide support to boys victimized and trafficked by their families for CSEA. Consequently, service providers may stand to benefit from training on 1) trauma-informed, person-centered practices and 2) conscious and unconscious biases, particularly those related to gender. Survivors in recovery require expanded support services, such as the provision of safe housing, online/in-person support communities, and professional/life skill training. Co-productive research methods that integrate the views and experiences of CSEA and trafficking survivors are also recommended.

Equal Pay for Equal Work in the Dean Suite: Addressing Occupational Gender Segregation and Compensation Inequities Among Medical School Leadership.

In 2022, the Association of American Medical Colleges published data from its annual Dean's Office Staff Compensation and Dean's Compensation Surveys in a new report addressing salary equity among medical school leadership. These data, disaggregated by gender and race/ethnicity, represent earnings of the senior most leaders in the dean suite and have historically been shared only with medical school Deans and principal business officers. The report shows that the highest-ranking decanal positions in U.S. medical schools are filled along the lines of traditional gender stereotypes (with men in clinical affairs and research affairs deanships and women in admissions, diversity affairs, faculty affairs, and student affairs deanships) and that the roles held mostly by men carry grander titles (e.g., senior associate dean vs assistant dean) and significantly higher salaries than those typically held by women. Additionally, within the same decanal positions, women earn lower median compensation than men. In this commentary, the authors describe limited advancement and lower compensation as foregone conclusions for women in medicine and science due to a professional model that places a premium on activities traditionally pursued by men. They define and characterize the impact of this occupational gender segregation in the dean suite and offer a roadmap for an alternative value system that recognizes complementary leadership activities across the mission areas of academic medicine and ensures that the contributions of women in the profession are appropriately recognized, valued, and rewarded.

Longitudinal research on the dynamics and internal mechanism of female entrepreneurs' passion.

Based on Vallerand's dualistic model of passion, this study theorizes and empirically examines the temporal dynamics of two types of entrepreneurial passion in female entrepreneurs, harmonious entrepreneurial passion (HmEP) and obsessive entrepreneurial passion (ObEP), and examines the mechanisms by which entrepreneurial effort0 and fear of failure influence the temporal dynamics of entrepreneurial passion. Using data collected from a three-wave, lagged survey of female entrepreneurs, we employed Mplus to build a latent growth model for entrepreneurial passion and built a cross-lag model of the relationship between entrepreneurial passion, entrepreneurial effort, and fear of failure. We found that female entrepreneurs' HmEP and ObEP present different temporal dynamics. Furthermore, the temporal dynamics of HmEP are achieved through changes in entrepreneurial effort, whereas the temporal dynamics of ObEP are achieved through changes in current entrepreneurial effort and fear of failure in the next stage. Therefore, due to traditional gender stereotypes and varying motivations to engage in entrepreneurship, the two entrepreneurial passions have different dynamic evolution processes. Our results underscore the importance of effort and fear of failure in stimulating the dynamics of female entrepreneurial passion.

Gender Representations in Early Childhood Development: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Selected ECD Rhymes

Nursery rhymes play an important role in the formal and informal development of toddlers. The rhyme is used to impact values that make the young grow into responsible citizens. In pursuance of international calls to eradicate gender inequality in communities, the study aims at making a gender analysis of selected ECD rhymes. Three popular ECD rhymes were subjected to a three-pronged analytical lens adopted from critical discourse analysis. The rhyme lyrics were analysed in the following ways: (i) analysis of the rhymes as discourse (ii) rhymes as performed language, (ii) description of discourses about the rhyme. Conclusions from the study show that there is a critical role that music plays at ECD level. However, nurturers seem oblivious to the role that rhymes play in perpetuating traditional gender stereotypes that fuel gender inequality in our communities. The analysis of these rhymes may help in making stakeholders aware of the need to come up with gender-neutral rhymes that promote equal opportunities for girls and boys in all spheres of life even as they grow up. Keywords: femininity, early childhood development, gender socialisation, masculinity, music DOI: 10.7176/JEP/13-33-07 Publication date: November 30 th 2022

‘Is it necessary to be male?’: A qualitative study of female kindergarten teachers’ views on physical activity for young children in China

ABSTRACT Men are traditionally portrayed as being successful in sports, and male teachers in physical activities are portrayed as successful teachers. How do female teachers perceive the gender role of kindergarten teachers in early childhood physical activities? Using hegemonic masculinity theory as an analytical tool, semi-structured interviews with female public kindergarten teachers from four cities in Zhejiang Province, China were conducted. The study found that although most Chinese female teachers had traditional gender stereotypes about the role of physical activity teachers in kindergartens, these gender stereotypes were not firmly established. As the questions were contextualized and deepened, thinking about the deeper elements of early childhood physical activity was activated. They did not seem to believe that women were incapable of leading young children in physical activities, nor did they believe that women were not important in ideal early childhood physical activities. By deconstructing the male-only nature of ‘hegemonic masculinity’, they reconstructed the masculinity that children need in early childhood physical activities and constructed a more equal concept of teachers’ gender in early childhood physical activities.

Types of reproductive orientations of modern students

The aim of the study is to analyze the socio-demographic and activity-motivational factors that determine the type of youth reproductive orientations. The object of the study is students of Vavilov Saratov State Agrarian University. Formation of the target sample is due to the need to consider the reproductive orientations of young people in conjunction with the desire to live and work in rural areas. The information base of the study is the results of a sociological study conducted by the Institute of Agrarian Problems RAS (216 respondents). The work shows that the cause of the formation of narrowed reproductive orientations is the shift of the value of family and children to the last places in the system of life priorities of this group of young people who prefer to focus on development of individual human capital and self-realization in profession. They are convinced that children are associated with a great responsibility and restriction of freedom, so any measures to increase the birth rate are of little interest to them. Young people with extended reproductive orientations are characterized by child-centric attitudes, with a high value of family lifestyles and traditional gender stereotypes. Most of them associate effectiveness of measures to increase the birth rate with economic instruments and development of a social infrastructure for maternity and child support. It has been found out that the selected typological groups of reproductive orientations of today's youth are characterized by different potential for future reproductive behavior, which leads to differentiation of tools to increase the birth rate for these groups of young people.

‘The mother of all nations’: gendered discourses in Ghana’s 2020 elections

ABSTRACT Gendered discourses in Ghana’s politics are not new. Unlike previous years, however, the gendered discourse in the 2020 election was different because the leading opposition party (NDC) selected a female running mate. Considering that the seat has been rotating between the NDC and NPP since 1992, Ghanaians foresaw a “real” possibility of having a female vice president. With data from online news articles and social media, this paper examines the nature of the gendered discourse that characterised Ghana’s 2020 election. We focus on stylistic devices and other linguistic strategies used with a view to understanding how gender either took a centre stage or “seeped” through the political discourse. Underpinned by Ambivalent Sexism Theory and Post-structuralist Discourse Analysis, findings indicate that although the running mate was sometimes represented in ways that challenge traditional gender stereotypes, she was largely represented in stereotypical ways, thereby corroborating findings from other parts of the world. These were done through devices like allusion, sarcasm, simile, metaphor and rhetorical questions. Findings also show that although it was the NDC that actively played the “gender card” to galvanise support, the NPP also played it to dissuade voters from voting for the NDC.

Are Personality Traits in Harry Potter Novels Gender-Based? The Case of Harry, Ron and Hermione

Humans display several different attitudes towards others and towards the life situations and challenges they encounter. Gender is said to be a factor that can determine one’s likeability to show a certain attitude rather than another. Traditionally speaking, men are expected to act one way towards something, while women are expected to act in a different way towards the same thing. This paper aims to identify the extent to which the Harry Potter series abides by, or challenges, the traditional gender stereotypes of human attitudes and reactions. Thus, this paper should help to decide if the three main characters in Harry Potter: Harry, Ron and Hermione, are depicted, in terms of their personality traits, on the basis of traditional gender norms. On a wider scope, the paper aims to investigate the role that widely-read fiction, such as Harry Potter, plays to reinforce traditional ideas or to encourage more liberating views. To achieve these aims, the attitudes and reactions of the three major characters of the novels are to be analyzed. Two of these characters are male: Harry and Ron, while the third: Hermione, is female. The attitudes and reactions of these three characters are to be measured according to how much they take risks or follow the rules, how much they are caring and nurturing, rude, and persistent.

The Effect of Gender on the Measurement of Entrepreneurial Orientation

The measurement of entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is a cornerstone of research in entrepreneurship. However, common concepts involved in the operationalization of EO, namely risk-taking, innovativeness, and proactivity might be perceived as stereotypically masculine in nature. According to reasoning from social role theory, women might respond to measures of EO in ways that do not reflect the approaches of their firms but instead reflect their reaction to masculine stereotypes – stereotypes that might be more salient depending on survey response options. Gender-specific reactions might be especially likely in emerging economies where traditional gender stereotypes are strong. We test for the possibility that women might react to scales of EO in ways that differ from men through the analysis of a survey experiment of 499 entrepreneurs in Ethiopia. We find that the validity of EO measures in explaining firm revenue is lower among women than men; however, that effect is moderated by random assignment to different response scale types. Differences among men and women are greater with a common “descriptive” response scale that emphasizes the opportunity to disagree – but less pronounced with the use of a less common “branched” scale. We discuss important implications for the study of entrepreneurially-minded women and EO.

Challenging Male Gender Stereotypes in Children’s Picture Books. A Social Semiotic and Multimodal Analysis

The main aim of this article is to identify the visual and verbal strategies that authors and illustrators display in five picture books featuring children who do not conform to traditional masculine gender stereotypes. The theoretical framework adopted for the multimodal analysis is Systemic-Functional Social Semiotics. After identifying the verbal and visual transitivity/transactional options that are actualised in the sample texts, we determine whether the semantic load that each mode contributes to the construction of gender is convergent or divergent. The findings show that the meaning load carried by embedded images (action plus reaction), together with verbal and mental processes of perception, provides essential cues for fostering progressive gender discourses.

Do Men Have No Need for “Feminist” Artificial Intelligence? Agentic and Gendered Voice Assistants in the Light of Basic Psychological Needs

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is supposed to perform tasks autonomously, make competent decisions, and interact socially with people. From a psychological perspective, AI can thus be expected to impact users’ three Basic Psychological Needs (BPNs), namely (i) autonomy, (ii) competence, and (iii) relatedness to others. While research highlights the fulfillment of these needs as central to human motivation and well-being, their role in the acceptance of AI applications has hitherto received little consideration. Addressing this research gap, our study examined the influence of BPN Satisfaction on Intention to Use (ITU) an AI assistant for personal banking. In a 2×2 factorial online experiment, 282 participants (154 males, 126 females, two non-binary participants) watched a video of an AI finance coach with a female or male synthetic voice that exhibited either high or low agency (i.e., capacity for self-control). In combination, these factors resulted either in AI assistants conforming to traditional gender stereotypes (e.g., low-agency female) or in non-conforming conditions (e.g., high-agency female). Although the experimental manipulations had no significant influence on participants’ relatedness and competence satisfaction, a strong effect on autonomy satisfaction was found. As further analyses revealed, this effect was attributable only to male participants, who felt their autonomy need significantly more satisfied by the low-agency female assistant, consistent with stereotypical images of women, than by the high-agency female assistant. A significant indirect effects model showed that the greater autonomy satisfaction that men, unlike women, experienced from the low-agency female assistant led to higher ITU. The findings are discussed in terms of their practical relevance and the risk of reproducing traditional gender stereotypes through technology design.

Posthuman fantasies: is Love, Death & Robots or women, violence & antihumanism?

ABSTRACT This study explores representations of women, violence, and antihumanism in the Netflix original Love, Death & Robots animated anthology series. Drawing on the cyborg philosophical figure described by Donna Haraway in The Cyborg Manifesto and the posthumanist ideas of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the text examines how posthuman representations are constructed. The present study begins with a literature review extending these theories. The first section under the main theme of “love and death” provides the intersecting narratives of sexual violence with love and women. In the second section “antihumanism” theme reveals the discourse that the series develops against humanist ideas through subheadings. Thus, the analysis section re-presents alternative ideas about the posthuman concept. In study, I argue that Love, Death & Robots have the masculine nature of perpetuating traditional gender stereotypes and rejecting humanistic philosophy at the beginning of the posthuman age. The TV show offers a unique textual rupturing, with its original take on the animated science fiction genre.

Feminine Imagery in Chinese Lyrics of the Six Dynasties

This article deals with the specifics of female imagery in Chinese poetry of the Six Dynasties period ( Liuchao ). The aim is to characterize female imagery in the works of the poets of this period and find out what changes these images underwent in comparison with previous epochs, and how the structure of these images differs in female and male poetry. The aim is to analyze the women topic in the works of the leading poets of the Six Dynasties period. The conclusion is made that in mens poetry of the mentioned period the female image remains idealized, unified and narcissistic. Male poets used a standard set of artistic means to portray female images. The woman was presented as an object of aesthetic pleasure, and appeared to the reader in an inseparable connection with her surroundings and boudoir objects. In this regard, the thesis of the emergence of the image of a beautiful lady in Luchao poetry is put forward. Nevertheless, in both womens and mens lyrics more individualized images began to appear and a departure from traditional gender stereotypes is obvious; the main change in Six Dynasties poetry is the development of self-awareness in female and male poems, both in life and poetry, and the increasing understanding of their own subjectivity. The female characters of the Luchao era turn out to be endowed with reflexivity and psychologism. Lyrics on womens themes developed both quantitatively and qualitatively.