Tract Infections In Primary Care Research Articles

Reducing antibiotic prescribing for children with respiratory tract infections in primary care: a systematic review

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) in children are common and often result in antibiotic prescription despite their typically self-limiting course. To assess the effectiveness of primary care based interventions to reduce antibiotic prescribing for children with RTIs. Systematic review. MEDLINE(®), Embase, CINAHL(®), PsycINFO, and the Cochrane library were searched for randomised, cluster randomised, and non-randomised studies testing educational and/or behavioural interventions to change antibiotic prescribing for children (<18 years) with RTIs. Main outcomes included change in proportion of total antibiotic prescribing or change in 'appropriate' prescribing for RTIs. Narrative analysis of included studies was used to identify components of effective interventions. Of 6301 references identified through database searching, 17 studies were included. Interventions that combined parent education with clinician behaviour change decreased antibiotic prescribing rates by between 6-21%; structuring the parent-clinician interaction during the consultation may further increase the effectiveness of these interventions. Automatic computerised prescribing prompts increased prescribing appropriateness, while passive information, in the form of waiting room educational materials, yielded no benefit. Conflicting evidence from the included studies found that interventions directed towards parents and/or clinicians can reduce rates of antibiotic prescribing. The most effective interventions target both parents and clinicians during consultations, provide automatic prescribing prompts, and promote clinician leadership in the intervention design.

Evaluating the evidence for the implementation of C-reactive protein measurement in adult patients with suspected lower respiratory tract infection in primary care: a systematic review

Excessive prescription of antibiotics in patients with lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) is common in primary care and might be reduced by rapid point-of-care (POC) C-reactive protein (CRP) testing. However, the exact benefits of this test are unclear. To review the available evidence for the role of POC CRP measurement in (i) guiding antibiotic prescription, (ii) predicting aetiology, (iii) prognosis and (iv) diagnosis (pneumonia) in LRTI patients. For each research question, studies were retrieved through an electronic literature search in Medline, Embase and the Cochrane Library using synonyms for CRP and LRTI combined with different relevant subheadings. Study quality was assessed using validated instruments and predefined outcome measures were extracted from each study. The search yielded 13 articles, each answering one or more questions; one was excluded by insufficient internal validity. (i) One of four studies showed a significant reduction in the antibiotic prescriptions when applying POC CRP measurement [relative risk (RR) 0.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.5-0.7]. (ii) Three studies on aetiology demonstrated that an elevated CRP was associated with bacterial [odds ratio (OR) 2.46-4.8] and one with viral (OR 2.7) aetiology. (iii) Results on the prognostic value were contradictory, providing evidence for faster symptom resolution (RR 1.16, 95% CI 1.1-1.3), higher mortality rate (RR 2.5, 95% CI 1.2-5.1) and no difference in outcome in patients with high CRP levels. (iv) Four studies showed that CRP had limited value as a single predictor of pneumonia. When combined with clinical assessment, its value increased according to two of these studies (receiver operating characteristic area from 0.7 to 0.9). However, methodological flaws and/or wide CIs limit the generalizability of findings in all studies. The evidence for the benefits of POC CRP measurement in LRTI patients in primary care is limited, contradictory and does not support its use to guide treatment decisions yet.

Error in Author’s Name in: How Efficient Is Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use in Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care?

How Efficient Is Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use in Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care?

A pilot study of the use of near-patient C-Reactive Protein testing in the treatment of adult respiratory tract infections in one Irish general practice

BackgroundNew approaches are being sought to safely reduce community antibiotic prescribing. A recent study demonstrated that CRP testing resulted in decreased antibiotic prescribing for lower respiratory tract infection in primary care. There is little other published primary care data available evaluating CRP in the treatment of lower respiratory tract infections in routine clinical practice. This pilot study aims to describe the performance of near-patient CRP testing, in a mixed payments health system. Specific areas to be reviewed included the integrity of the study protocol, testing of data collection forma and acceptability of the intervention.PatientsPatients over the age of 18 years, with acute cough and/or sore throat with a duration of one month or less, in routine clinical practice.MethodDesign: A pilot with a cross-sectional design. The first 60 recruited patients were treated with routine clinical management, and GP's had no access to a CRP test. For the subsequent 60 patients, access to CRP testing was available.Participants: 3 GP's in one Irish primary care practice recruited 120 patients, fulfilling the above criteria over five months, from January 1 to May 31, 2010.Main outcome measures: The primary outcome was antibiotic prescription at the index consultation. Secondary outcomes were the numbers of delayed prescriptions issued, patient satisfaction immediately after consultation and re-consultations and antibiotic prescriptions during 28 days follow-up.ResultsThe protocol and data collection forms worked well and the intervention of CRP testing appeared acceptable. Thirty-five (58%) patients in the no-test group received antibiotic prescriptions compared to 27 (45%) in the test group. Both groups demonstrated similarly high level of patient satisfaction (85%). Fourteen (23%) patients in the CRP test group re-attended within 28 days compared to 9 (15%) in the no-CRP test group.ConclusionThis pilot study confirms the potential feasibility of a full trial in Irish general practice. Further consideration of possible increased re-attendance rates in a mixed payments health system is appropriate. We intend to pursue a larger trial in a newly established regional primary care research network.

Antibiotic prescribing for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care: a systematic review and meta-ethnography

Numerous interventions have been developed to promote prudent antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs). While reviews have assessed which interventions may be most effective, none has examined why some interventions may be more effective than others. Knowing what general practitioners (GPs) feel is acceptable and feasible to implement may help to answer this question. A systematic review was undertaken of 12 studies of GPs' views and experiences of antibiotic prescribing and/or interventions promoting the prudent use of antibiotics. A meta-ethnographic approach was followed to synthesize the findings. Thirteen themes were identified from the synthesis. The first discussed GPs' satisfaction with their prescribing decisions. Seven themes highlighted factors that influence GPs' prescribing decisions; these included perceptions of external pressure to reduce prescribing, uncertainty about ARTI management and previous experience of ARTI management. Five themes highlighted the benefits of interventions that had helped GPs to prescribe more prudently in practice. The last two sets of themes were linked to indicate that interventions may only be beneficial for GPs when they address one or more of the factors that influence their prescribing decisions. The findings suggest that interventions should incorporate five aspects to promote prudent use whilst remaining attractive to GPs and feasible in practice. In order to maximize acceptability, interventions should: allow GPs to reflect on their own prescribing; help decrease uncertainty about appropriate ARTI management; educate GPs about appropriate prescribing; facilitate more patient-centred care; and be beneficial to implement in practice.

Developing and evaluating interventions to reduce inappropriate prescribing by general practitioners of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections: a randomised controlled trial to compare paper-based and web-based modelling experiments.

BackgroundMuch implementation research is focused on full-scale trials with little evidence of preceding modelling work. The Medical Research Council Framework for developing and evaluating complex interventions has argued for more and better theoretical and exploratory work prior to a trial as a means of improving intervention development. Intervention modelling experiments (IMEs) are a way of exploring and refining an intervention before moving to a full-scale trial. They do this by delivering key elements of the intervention in a simulation that approximates clinical practice by, for example, presenting general practitioners (GPs) with a clinical scenario about making a treatment decision.MethodsThe current proposal will run a full, web-based IME involving 250 GPs that will advance the methodology of IMEs by directly comparing results with an earlier paper-based IME. Moreover, the web-based IME will evaluate an intervention that can be put into a full-scale trial that aims to reduce antibiotic prescribing for upper respiratory tract infections in primary care. The study will also include a trial of email versus postal invitations to participate.DiscussionMore effective behaviour change interventions are needed and this study will develop one such intervention and a system to model and test future interventions. This system will be applicable to any situation in the National Health Service where behaviour needs to be modified, including interventions aimed directly at the public.Trial registrationClinicalTrials (NCT): NCT01206738

Reducing uncertainty in managing respiratory tract infections in primary care

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) remain the commonest reason for acute consultations in primary care in resource-rich countries. Their spectrum and severity has changed from the time that antibiotics were discovered, largely from improvements in the socioeconomic determinants of health as well as vaccination. The benefits from antibiotic treatment for common RTIs have been shown to be largely overstated. Nevertheless, serious infections do occur. Currently, no clinical features or diagnostic test, alone or in combination, adequately determine diagnosis, aetiology, prognosis, or response to treatment. This narrative review focuses on emerging evidence aimed at helping clinicians reduce and manage uncertainty in treating RTIs. Consultation rate and prescribing rate trends are described, evidence of increasing rates of complications are discussed, and studies and the association with antibiotic prescribing are examined. Methods of improving diagnosis and identifying those patients who are at increased risk of complications from RTIs, using clinical scoring systems, biomarkers, and point of care tests are also discussed. The evidence for alternative management options for RTIs are summarised and the methods for changing public and clinicians' beliefs about antibiotics, including ways in which we can improve clinician-patient communication skills for management of RTIs, are described.

Treatment of upper respiratory tract infections in primary care: a randomized study using aromatic herbs.

This study is a prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial whose aim was to investigate the clinical effects of aromatic essential oils in patients with upper respiratory tract infections. The trial was conducted in six primary care clinics in northern Israel. A spray containing aromatic essential oils of five plants (Eucalyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus globulus, Mentha piperita, Origanum syriacum, and Rosmarinus officinalis) as applied 5 times a day for 3 days and compared with a placebo spray. The main outcome measure was patient assessment of the change in severity of the most debilitating symptom (sore throat, hoarseness or cough). Sixty patients participated in the study (26 in the study group and 34 in the control group). Intention-to-treat analysis showed that 20 minutes following the spray use, participants in the study group reported a greater improvement in symptom severity compared to participants in the placebo group (P = .019). There was no difference in symptom severity between the two groups after 3 days of treatment (P = .042). In conclusion, spray application of five aromatic plants reported in this study brings about significant and immediate improvement in symptoms of upper respiratory ailment. This effect is not significant after 3 days of treatment.

Validating the prediction of lower urinary tract infection in primary care: sensitivity and specificity of urinary dipsticks and clinical scores in women.

Dipsticks are one of the most commonly used near-patient tests in primary care, but few clinical or dipstick algorithms have been rigorously developed. To confirm whether previously documented clinical and dipstick variables and algorithms predict laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infection (UTI). Validation study. Primary care. A total of 434 adult females with suspected lower UTI had bacteriuria assessed using the European Urinalysis Guidelines. Sixty-six per cent of patients had confirmed UTI. The predictive values of nitrite, leucocyte esterase (+ or greater), and blood (haemolysed trace or greater) were confirmed (independent multivariate odds ratios = 5.6, 3.5, and 2.1 respectively). The previously developed dipstick rule--based on presence of nitrite, or both leucocytes and blood-- was moderately sensitive (75%) but less specific (66%; positive predictive value [PPV] 81%, negative predictive value [NPV] 57%). Predictive values were improved by varying the cut-off point: NPV was 76% for all three dipstick results being negative; the PPV was 92% for having nitrite and either blood or leucocyte esterase. Urine offensive smell was not found to be predictive in this sample; for a clinical score using the remaining three predictive clinical features (urine cloudiness, dysuria, and nocturia), NPV was 67% for none of the features, and PPV was 82% for three features. A clinical score is of limited value in increasing diagnostic precision. Dipstick results can modestly improve diagnostic precision but poorly rule out infection. Clinicians need strategies to take account of poor NPVs.

Diabetic Polyneuropathy and Glucose Control

1. Briel M, Langewitz W, Tschudi P, Young J, Hugenschmidt C, Bucher HC. Communication training and antibiotic use in acute respiratory tract infections: a cluster randomised controlled trial in general practice. Swiss Med Wkly. 2006; 136(15-16):241-247. 2. Briel M, Schuetz P, Mueller B, et al. Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic use vs a standard approach for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(18):2000-2008. 3. Cals JW, Butler CC, Hopstaken RM, Hood K, Dinant GJ. Effect of point of care testing for C reactive protein and training in communication skills on antibiotic use in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster randomised trial. BMJ. 2009;338: b1374. 4. Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Muller B. Procalcitonin and other biomarkers to improve assessment and antibiotic stewardship in infections: hope for hype? Swiss Med Wkly. 2009;139(23-24):318-326. 5. Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Wolbers M, et al; ProHOSP Study Group. Procalcitonin guided antibiotic therapy and hospitalization in patients with lower respiratory tract infections: a prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled trial. BMC Health Serv Res. 2007;7:102. 6. Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Bingisser R, et al. Procalcitonin guidance of antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174(1):84-93.

Presentation, pattern, and natural course of severe symptoms, and role of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance among patients presenting with suspected uncomplicated urinary tract infection in primary care: observational study

Objective To assess the natural course and the important predictors of severe symptoms in urinary tract infection and the effect of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance.Design Observational study.Setting Primary care.Participants 839...

How Efficient Is Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use in Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care?

How Efficient Is Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use in Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care?

Commentary: Controversies in NICE guidance on antibiotic prescribing for self limiting respiratory tract infections in primary care

Commentary: Controversies in NICE guidance on antibiotic prescribing for self limiting respiratory tract infections in primary care

Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use vs a Standard Approach for Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care

Acute respiratory tract infections are the most common reason for antibiotic therapy in primary care despite their mainly viral etiology. A laboratory test measuring procalcitonin levels in blood specimens was suggested as a tool to reduce unnecessary prescribing of antibiotics. We consider whether antibiotic therapy guided by procalcitonin reduces the use of antibiotics without increasing the restrictions experienced by patients by more than 1 day. Fifty-three primary care physicians recruited 458 patients, each patient with an acute respiratory tract infection and, in the physician's opinion, in need of antibiotics. Patients were centrally randomized to either a procalcitonin-guided approach to antibiotic therapy or to a standard approach. For patients randomized to procalcitonin-guided therapy, the use of antibiotics was more or less strongly discouraged (procalcitonin level, < or =0.1 or < or =0.25 microg/L, respectively) or recommended (procalcitonin level, >0.25 microg/L). Follow-up data were collected at 7 days by treating physicians and at 14 and 28 days by blinded interviewers. Adjusted for baseline characteristics, the mean increase at 14 days in days in which activities were restricted was 0.14 with procalcitonin-guided therapy (95% confidence interval [CI], -0.53 to 0.81 days), which met our criterion of an increase in days in which activities were restricted by no more than 1 day. With procalcitonin-guided therapy, the antibiotic prescription rate was 72% lower (95% CI, 66%-78%) than with standard therapy. Both approaches led to a similar proportion of patients reporting symptoms of ongoing or relapsing infection at 28 days (adjusted odds ratio, 1.0 [95% CI, 0.7-1.5]). As an adjunct to guidelines, procalcitonin-guided therapy markedly reduces antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care without compromising patient outcome. In practice, this could be achieved with 1 to 2 procalcitonin measurements in patients for whom the physician intends to prescribe antibiotics.

Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use vs a Standard Approach for Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care

Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Use vs a Standard Approach for Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care

Dose timing and patient compliance with two antibiotic treatment regimens for lower respiratory tract infections in primary care

The objective of this study was to assess compliance with a 10-day treatment of antibiotics or placebo once-daily (OD) and three-times-daily (TD) for lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) using electronic monitoring, and to evaluate whether compliance depends on time since the start of treatment and weekday. Taking compliance, timing compliance, correct dosing compliance and mean interdose intervals were assessed using data from 155 LRTI patients who received either a 10-day treatment of amoxicillin TD and placebo OD or roxithromycin OD and placebo TD using a double-dummy technique. Compliance was assessed by electronic monitoring. Taking compliance was 98.0% for the OD regimen and 91.0% for the TD regimen. Correct dosing was 98.1% for the OD regimen and 91.1% for the TD regimen and timing compliance was 48.2% and 10.9%, respectively. The mean interdose interval before the first daily dose for the TD group was particularly prolonged to >13 h. Correct dosing over time showed fewer patients with correct dosing compliance, reaching a low of 79% for the TD group towards the end of the 10-day treatment. Compliance was not influenced by weekday. This study adds important information to the limited evidence on compliance with antibiotics for LRTI, one of the most common reasons for consultation in primary care. Taking compliance was high for both regimens, yet timing compliance was poor. The prolonged mean interdose intervals provide striking new insights into understanding non-compliance with more-than-once-daily regimens. These findings require consideration when exploring ways to improve future compliance in short-term antibiotic treatment for respiratory tract infections.

Is co-morbidity taken into account in the antibiotic management of elderly patients with acute bronchitis and COPD exacerbations?

Guidelines on acute lower respiratory tract infections recommend restrictive use of antibiotics, however, in patients with relevant co-morbid conditions treatment with antibiotics should be considered. Presently, it is unknown whether GPs adhere to these guidelines and target antibiotic treatment more often at patients with risk-elevating conditions. We assessed whether in elderly primary care patients with acute bronchitis or exacerbations of chronic pulmonary disease (COPD), antibiotics are more often prescribed to patients with risk-elevating co-morbid conditions. Using the Utrecht GP research database, we analysed 2643 episodes in patients of 65 years of age or older with a GP-diagnosed acute bronchitis or exacerbation of COPD. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was applied to determine independent determinants of antibiotic use. Antibiotic prescribing rates were high in both acute bronchitis (84%) and in exacerbations of COPD (53%). In acute bronchitis, only age was an independent determinant of antibiotic use [odds ratio (OR) 1.03, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.003-1.048], whereas in exacerbations of COPD antibiotics were more often prescribed to male patients (OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.0-1.5), patients with diabetes (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.1-2.4) and heart failure (OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.0-1.7). Dutch GPs prescribe antibiotics in the majority of elderly patients with acute bronchitis and in half of the episodes of exacerbations of COPD. Tailoring their antibiotic treatment according to the presence or absence of high-risk co-morbid conditions could help GPs in improving antibiotic use in patients with respiratory tract infections in primary care.

Clinical relevance of laboratory-reported antibiotic resistance in acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection in primary care

To determine whether patients with an uncomplicated community-acquired urinary tract infection (UTI) and an isolate resistant to trimethoprim had worse clinical outcomes following empirical treatment with trimethoprim 200 mg twice daily for 3 days than did those with a susceptible isolate. This was a prospective cohort study of clinical outcome. We enrolled 497 women (>or=18-70 years) presenting to general practitioner surgeries in Norwich and Gloucester with at least two symptoms of acute (<7 days) uncomplicated UTI. Significant bacteriuria was defined as >or=10(4) cfu/mL from a mid-stream urine (MSU). Of enrolled patients 75% (334/448) had significant bacteriuria, and trimethoprim resistance was present in 13.9% (44/317) of isolates. Patients with resistant isolates had a longer median time to symptom resolution (7 versus 4 days, P=0.0002), greater reconsultation to the practice (39% versus 6% in first week, P<0.0001), more subsequent antibiotics (36% versus 4% in first week, P<0.0001) and higher rates of significant bacteriuria at 1 month (42% versus 20% with susceptible isolate, P=0.04). Half of patients reconsulting in the first week had a resistant organism. Patients with uncomplicated UTI caused by trimethoprim-resistant organisms had significantly worse clinical outcomes than those with trimethoprim-susceptible organisms. Nevertheless, trimethoprim resistance was rarer than predicted from routine laboratory submissions and we calculate that 23 women require microbiological investigation to prevent one reconsultation arising from resistance-based treatment failure. We therefore suggest empirical antibiotic treatment in acute, uncomplicated UTIs. If patients reconsult in the first week, we suggest a change of antibiotic treatment with urine culture and susceptibility testing then done. More generally, laboratory resources should concentrate on resistance surveillance to inform empirical antibiotic choice.

Diagnosis, treatment and management of urinary tract infections in primary care

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common bacterial infection managed in general practice. Following the introduction of extended nurse prescribing, it is now possible for suitably qualified nurses to assess, manage and treat uncomplicated UTIs in primary care without the need for a GP consultation. This article provides a guide to the diagnosis, treatments available and management of UTIs in primary care.

Prevalence and influence of diagnostic tests for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care.

General practitioners (GPs) use diagnostic tests to help distinguish between viral and bacterial acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI). We investigated the prevalence of these tests, and how tests are associated with diagnosis, treatment and patient satisfaction. As part of a clinical trial, 45 GPs screened 1108 patients with ARTI and collected information on signs and symptoms, diagnostic test results, and subsequent diagnosis and treatment. A sample of 636 patients was interviewed after 7 days and their opinions recorded. We used multivariate mixed models to estimate associations between the use of tests and (1) baseline characteristics, (2) subsequent antibiotic treatment, and (3) patient satisfaction. GPs carried out at least one test in 42% of the 1108 patients screened. The tests used were (percentage of patients): CRP (35%), leucocyte count (17%), rapid Strep A (9%), chest X-ray (5%), sinus X-ray (1%), and throat culture (1%). The use of tests was associated with increasing patient age, education, and degree of discomfort. Antibiotic therapy was strongly associated with a positive test, with odds ratios of 26 (95% CI, 10-67) for a CRP above 50 mg/l; 9.6 (95% CI, 3.6-26) for a leucocyte count above 10,000/microl; and 122 (4.4-3435) for a positive StrepA test. There was no evidence of an association between the use of tests and patient satisfaction. Nearly half of these patients with ARTI received a diagnostic test. Older patients, those with higher education and those in more discomfort were more likely to get tests. A positive test was strongly associated with antibiotic treatment.