Total Gas Consumption Research Articles

A conformable fractional-order grey Bernoulli model with optimized parameters and its application in forecasting Chongqing’s energy consumption

Chongqing is the only province and city with net energy input in southwest China, and its energy security has been in a tight balance for a long time. To propose scientific and reasonable energy policies for Chongqing under the “dual carbon” goal, this paper studies Chongqing’s total energy consumption, coal consumption, natural gas consumption, and oil consumption by a conformable fractional-order grey Bernoulli model with optimized parameters. The new model is studied with its linearized form, the conformable fractional-order accumulation operation, the grey modelling technique, the least squares method, and the whale optimization algorithm. According to historical data, several forecasting models are built. From calculation results, the mean absolute validation percentage errors of the new model are smaller than those of other models in the total energy consumption, coal consumption and natural gas consumption, with values of 1.31%, 1.43%, and 2.41%, respectively. In the oil consumption, the MAPEvalid is 3.85%, which is the second smallest among these models. The results illustrate that the new model can provide competitive results. Further, the values in the next five years are calculated.

Performance enhancement of microwave discharge cathode by external gas injection system

The effect of external gas injection near the plume on the performance of a microwave discharge cathode is investigated. Experiments were conducted under two gas injection conditions: gas addition and gas distribution. Gas distribution tended to lead to better performance than gas addition. In the gas distribution experiments, the total gas consumption was kept constant, the internal gas flow rate was reduced, and external gas was supplied. The electron current increased from 0.26 to 0.49 A at 35 V when the microwave power was 15 W. When the sum of the internal and external gas flow rates was held constant, external gas injection lowered the neutralization costs and increased the gas utilization efficiency. The neutralization current was successfully increased by 48 % at 12 W of microwave power compared with 8 W of microwave power with the same level of naturalization cost and gas utilization efficiency. The electron temperature and plasma density in the plume, as measured using a Langmuir probe, suggested that an increase of ionization in the plume by the external gas injection enhanced the cathode's performance.

Energetical effect of electrochromic glazing on the double-skin façade of the building in different climates

Today, energy has an essential role in the world’s future, and managing its consumption can be very influential and crucial in human life. Most of the energy consumption in any country is related to building. The aim of writing this article is to investigate the effect of combining electrochromic glazing and double skin facades. For this purpose, a double skin facade building with simple glass and a building in which electrochromic is used in the second layer of the facade were compared. These buildings were designed by Design Builder. The results demonstrated significant reductions in energy consumption in the second case. To study the effect of weather on the performance of this system, four cities in Iran with diverse climates have been selected. The energy consumption of cooling, heating, lighting, electricity, and gas utilization of the same building in different climates was studied. Using electrochromic glazing in the double-skin facade reduced the annual electrical consumption of the entire building by up to 3.5% for hot_humid weather. Also, the total annual gas consumption of the building was reduced up to 22.7% for hot and dry weather.

ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТЬ СИСТЕМЫ ЭНЕРГООБЕСПЕЧЕНИЯ ВАРОЧНОГО КОТЛА С ПРОПОРЦИОНАЛЬНЫМ РЕГУЛИРОВАНИЕМ РАСХОДА ГАЗА

Until recently, heating of rural houses was carried out with coal or wood. Animal feed and food were prepared on electric stoves or on gas stoves with gas cylinder fuel. These are labor-intensive and energy-consuming technologies. The intensively developing gasification of rural areas makes it possible to universally transfer the heating of rural houses and the preparation of feed and food to natural gas. In the presented work, the main evaluation indicator of the digester is the efficiency factor. Equations are given that describe the useful energy consumption for preparing the product in a digester, as well as heat losses for heating metal structures, for compensating for energy losses from the boiler casing, for purging the steam jacket, and energy losses with flue gases. The energy consumption per unit of production was determined when loading the boiler from 100 to 20 liters. It has been revealed that the efficiency of the boiler decreases by almost 2 times if, instead of 100 liters, the cooking tank is loaded with only 20 liters. Based on experimental data, the useful component of the energy spent on heating 100 liters of water to a boil was determined and the boiler efficiency in automatic and manual mode was determined, which was: in automatic mode, efficiency = 0.84, in manual mode, efficiency = 0.7. Taking into account experimental data, the total gas consumption for the full cycle of feed preparation in automatic and manual modes was determined. The annual operating costs from burning gas in a digester in automatic and manual modes and cost savings on energy supply for the feed preparation process were determined.

Evaluating the impact of virtual energy storage under air conditioning and building coupling on the performance of a grid-connected distributed energy system

Energy storage technologies are vital in improving the operation performance of grid-connected distributed energy systems. The adjustability of indoor temperature and the thermal inertia of buildings can form an excellent virtual energy storage. However, there are few studies on the impact of this virtual energy storage on the operation performance of grid-connected distributed energy systems. Therefore, this study first calculates the equivalent thermal resistance and thermal capacitance of a building by using EnergyPlus and establishes the first-order thermodynamic load calculation model. Subsequently, the system dynamic optimal scheduling model, considering the virtual energy storage, was developed based on the first-order thermodynamic load calculation model. The Gurobi nonconvex solver is used to optimize the model, and the results are compared with the optimal scheduling results without considering the virtual energy storage. The results indicate that, guided by time-of-use electricity pricing, the virtual energy storage effectively reduces the air conditioning load during high and peak tariff periods while increasing it during valley tariff periods. This change in air conditioning load leads to an increase in grid power consumption during valley tariff periods. However, it also improves the system's operation efficiency and ultimately reduces the total grid power and gas consumption. The lower energy consumption makes the primary energy saving rate and carbon dioxide emission reduction rate of Scenario 2 greater than zero compared to Scenario 1 and increases with the increase of renewable energy penetration of the integrated power system. Furthermore, affected by the difference in the proportion of grid power consumption under time-of-use electricity pricing and the total energy consumption, the system's operating cost in Scenario 2 is less than in Scenario 1. The reduction rates in summer and winter typical days are 1.95 % and 6.48 %, respectively. Therefore, fully utilizing the virtual energy storage under air conditioning and building coupling can reduce the operating cost, primary energy consumption, and carbon dioxide emissions of grid-connected distributed energy systems.

3D modeling of cryogenic cracking by liquid nitrogen in coal under true triaxial stresses

Coalbed methane (CBM) plays an indispensable role in total natural gas production and consumption, and for the bottlenecks encountered in stimulating CBM reservoirs by conventional fracturing methods, studying more environment-friendly and efficient stimulation methods is imperative. Cryogenic fracturing using liquid nitrogen has been trialed for the development of coalbed methane, demonstrating great significance as more and more research corroborated. This study extended our previous coupled thermo-mechanical-damage (TMD) numerical procedure to investigate the cryogenic fracturing or damage process in 3D coal cubes. The cryogenic fractures on concrete cubes along with analytical solutions of temperature and first principle stress distributions for the borehole cooling process were first employed to verify the correctness and feasibility of this method, which incorporates the boundary conditions affected by the Leidenfrost effect at the initial stage. Then sensitivity analyses of cryogenic fracture generation including the maximum fracture cross-sectional area and the fractured volume were carried out. Results show that the coal rock with a high modulus of elasticity and coefficient of thermal expansion is more prone to be damaged in terms of the cross-sectional area and volume than other parameters within the parameter range analyzed. Damage cross-sectional area and damage volume expand with both the increasing coefficient of thermal expansion and the increasing modulus of elasticity, while they shrink with increasing heat capacity and coal density. Cryogenic fractures are relatively less sensitive to the thermal conductivity, density, and heat capacity of coal. This 3D modeling study provides a technical route and a panorama of the cryogenic fracturing process under varied conditions in opaque coal rocks.

EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE OF BIOGAS AND BIOMETHANE PRODUCTION FROM WASTE ACCORDING TO THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY PRINCIPLE IN AGRICULTURE

The article analyses the production of biogas from agricultural waste in the context of the circular economy. It is noted that waste-free biofuel production technologies can provide up to 50% of all farm incomes. The types of raw materials from which biogas production was carried out in the countries of the European Union in 2022 and their structure in different countries were investigated. It has been proven that in the structural ratio of the types of raw materials used for biogas production in the EU countries, energy crops and agricultural waste are leading. The volumes of biogas and biomethane production in the EU countries in 2021 are depicted and 16 countries are identified, which are the largest producers of biogas and biomethane relative to the total gas consumption among the countries of the European Union. A comprehensive analysis of the support and stimulation schemes for biogas and biomethane production was carried out in the context of the European Union and other European countries. The program documents in the field of energy of the European Union, which provide the reduction of consumption of fossil energy sources, the accelerated introduction of renewable energy sources (hereafter – RES) in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 and the achievement of climate neutrality of the European Union by 2050, have been analyzed. It was determined that biomethane will be the most promising type of biofuel in the future. The potential of biomethane production in the EU countries until 2030 according to the production technologies is presented. A number of measures are proposed for the policy of stimulating biomethane production in order to achieve the growth in biomethane production in the countries of the European Union in 2030 – 40 billion cubic meters, in 2050 – 151 billion cubic meters. Attention is focused on additional types of raw materials for the production of ecologically clean biomethane (biomass from marginal or polluted lands and seaweed), as well as the latest technologies – hydrothermal gasification of wet raw materials, including organic waste and residues. EU countries are offered to include in their national climate and energy plans measures to stimulate the development of the biomethane industry.

Enhanced the formation kinetics of CO2 hydrate using graphene oxide and L-methionine

Although carbon dioxide capture and storage based on hydrate technology has the characteristics of recyclability, high safety, and low pollution, it is hindered by the harsh conditions and the slow rate of hydrate formation. To improve the formation rate and the storage capacity of CO2 hydrate, the effects of graphene oxide (GO) and L-methionine (L-met) on CO2 hydrate formation kinetics were studied in this work. The experimental results showed that GO could effectively promote CO2 hydrate formation, and its promotion effect was related to the concentration of GO. For the single GO system, when the concentration of GO increased from 0.005 wt% to 0.025 wt%, the total gas consumption increased by 7.83%–16.59% compared with that of the pure water system. It was found that the optimal concentration of GO in the single GO system was 0.015 wt%, in which the induction time was shortened by 59.68% compared with that of the pure water system. For the compound system of GO and L-met, a synergistic promotion effect for CO2 hydrate formation was found between GO and L-met, and the optimal concentration in the compound system was 0.015 wt% GO mixed with 0.15 wt% L-met. Compared with the pure water system, the induction time and the time required for 90% hydrate formation to complete (T90) were shortened by 74.79% and 55.17%, respectively. According to the morphological observation of hydrates, it was inferred that the L-met enhanced the hydrate formation and mass transfer. Compared with the published data, the compound optimal system of GO and L-met had a higher gas storage capacity and a shorter induction time for hydrate formation. This work is helpful for advancing the commercialization of CO2 capture and storage based on hydrate technology.

Renewable-integrated flexible production of energy and methane via re-using existing offshore oil and gas infrastructure

Denmark has been extracting gas and oil from the North Sea since the 1970s. However, Denmark has recently committed to phasing out fossil fuel production by 2050 to meet the climate goals of the Paris Agreement. The decommissioning of the offshore infrastructure is going to be very expensive. Therefore, considering effective ways for its repurposing becomes of great interest. In parallel to this scenario, the energy transition towards renewable and sustainable energy supply has been boosting the construction of offshore wind farms (OWF) in the North Sea. In this context, the integration of OWF with offshore oil and gas (O&G) platforms could result in a better alternative to decommissioning. In this work, a novel zero-carbon emission energy system for both power generation and methane production is proposed. By utilizing surplus electricity from OWF, electrolysis can be used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen, which can be used in the Allam cycle for power generation and methanation according to the Sabatier reaction, respectively. In this novel integrated system, surplus electricity from wind farms, seawater, and CO2 are converted into controllable electricity, methane, and oxygen. The synthesized methane can be partly stored or exported via existing natural gas pipelines. The portion to be stored/exported is defined as the storage ratio in this study. The integrated system has high flexibility since the Allam cycle and methanation unit can be operated separately or simultaneously. To validate the feasibility of the system, preliminary energy and exergy analysis are performed using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software. 1% (45 ton/day) of the total daily Danish natural gas consumption is assumed as the baseline for the modeling. If all the synthesized methane is burned in the Allam cycle, 51.34 MW of electricity from wind farms can be transformed into 16.4 MW of controllable electricity. In this scenario, the integrated system can be regarded as an energy storage system, where the round-trip efficiency is about 32%.

Short-term forecasting of natural gas consumption by determining the statistical distribution of consumption data

The development of gas smart meters has enabled the collection of data on daily natural gas consumption which can be used to develop and improve methods and models for natural gas consumption forecasting. This paper presents the development of a model for the short-term forecasting of total natural gas consumption, which is applicable in different distribution areas where smart meters are installed in large numbers. The advantages of this model are the use of only two input parameters (daily natural gas consumption and average daily temperature), forecasting the total consumption in the determined area by analyzing the consumption data of less than 10% of the total consumers as well as robustness to consumer types. Daily natural gas consumption data collected from the more than 3300 gas smart meters over a period of six months was used for the determination of correlations between lognormal distribution variables and temperature. The defined correlations between distribution variables and temperature were used for upscaling consumption to a specific number of final consumers, i.e., to obtain the total consumption of natural gas in the observed area. Best results were achieved using the “two-day rolling average temperature” in the consumption scenario up to 250 m3 per day (MAPE was 7.26%). When compared to using “average temperature” as an input parameter, “two-day rolling average temperature” and “shaving peaks temperature” produced better results due to the mitigated impact of sudden temperature changes that significantly affected the simulated consumption in the model while the actual consumption is a little more inert. Also, consumption scenarios up to 250 m3 can be considered the most representative for forecasting total natural gas consumption since it achieved the best results.

ПОВЫШЕНИЕ ЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКОЙ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТИ ВАРОЧНОГО КОТЛА ОПТИМИЗАЦИЕЙ РАБОТЫ ГАЗОВОЙ ГОРЕЛКИ

The use of natural gas in the heat treatment of feed reduces the cost of livestock products and increases competitiveness in the foreign market. An analysis of various modifications of gas-using digesters with a wide range of performance and design, offered by the foreign market, showed that their common disadvantage is the lack of automatic gas flow control in proportion to the heat flow used to heat the feed to boiling and during boiling. An energy-saving fodder boiler with an automatic gas flow control system in proportion to the consumed heat flow has been developed. The studies were carried out on an experimental sample of a feed boiler, in which an automated gas flow control system based on semiconductor thermoelectric elements acts on the actuator without intermediate output signal amplifiers. The efficiency of the automated energy supply system was studied by experimental studies of the dynamics of gas consumption in the process of thermal processing of feed in automatic and manual modes. It was found that the total gas consumption for the preparation of 100 kg of feed in automatic mode with gas flow control proportional to the consumed heat flow is 1.2 times less than when the boiler is in manual mode. The most optimal mode for saving fuel is provided when setting the gas burner in the initial period of heating up to a power of 14 kW for a digester with a volume of 100 liters. Gas overrun up to 20% occurs for boilers with more powerful gas burners (22 kW).

A REVIEW OF WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE EU COUNTRIES AND THE EXPERIENCE OF ITS ENERGY USE

The article is devoted to the review of waste management in the EU countries and the study of the practices of their energy use. The amount and sources of waste generation in the EU countries and the current trends in its management are analyzed. Special attention is paid to the analysis of production and collection of organic (food) waste by the population; evaluated the top 5 best European models of their collection (open container; door-to-door collection; open container on the street, accessible only to owners; collection of household waste divided into two streams «wet/dry»; composting directly on the territory of their generation). The door-to-door model has shown the highest efficiency when implemented by the households in most European countries in most cases. Two main directions of organic waste management were analyzed: composting and anaerobic fermentation with biogas production. These directions of waste use correspond to the principles of the circular economy and help to use the available potential of waste. Anaerobic digestion of waste is preferred to the composting because it produces both energy resources (biogas, which can be purified to biomethane and also converted into electrical and thermal energy) and biofertilizers (digestate). The experience of individual European countries in the energy use of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (hereinafter referred to as MSW) is presented. It is substantiated that the use of waste of various origins (households, enterprises, municipal wastewater, etc.) for the production of biogas is actively developing in European countries; both the number of manufacturing enterprises and their production capacities are growing. A trend towards an increase in the production of biomethane – purified biogas, which has a wider application then biogas – has been noted. The production of biomethane and biogas in relation to the total gas consumption in the sixteen largest European countries is analyzed, the largest percentage of substitution as of 2021 is noted in Denmark – 5% of natural gas was replaced by biogas, 19% – by biomethane. It has been confirmed that European countries are intensifying the production of energy carriers from waste in order to reduce dependence on buying natural gas from russia. An increase in energy independence on russian energy resources is expected to accelerate as a reaction to hostilities in Ukraine.

Management of Natural Gas Consumption during the Manufacturing of Lead-Acid Batteries

The production of lead-acid batteries is an energy-intensive process where 28 to 35% of the energy is used in the form of heat, usually obtained from the combustion of fossil fuels. Regardless of the importance of heat consumption during battery manufacturing, there is no discussion available in the specialized literature that assesses heat during battery manufacturing. This study assessed natural gas consumption in a battery plant based on historical data, the thermographic evaluation of different equipment, and measurements of the combustion processes and combustion gases. Heat transfer models were used to calculate surface heat losses in the various assessed processes, while combustion theory was used to identify other saving potentials. Saving potentials equivalent to 16.6% of the plant’s total natural gas consumption were identified. Replacing the ingot casting system accounts for a potential saving equivalent to 13.6% of the plant gas consumption, improving the grid casting systems for 2.8%, and the leady oxide accounts for a low 0.1%. Implementing the saving measures related to surface heat loss and poor operational practice reduced natural gas consumption by an estimated 1.2% monthly. Savings could be increased to 3.2% by expanding the saving measures to the remaining grid casting systems. Overall, natural gas consumption was reduced by an estimated 777 m3/month, GHG emissions by 1.6 tCO2eq./month, and fuel costs by 1603 USD/month.

Analysis of Energy Losses of a Gas Digester During Feed Preparation

The results of a test to assess the energy efficiency of a gas digester with proportional regulation of gas flow, which depends on the total energy loss and is estimated by the efficiency coefficient, which is set by the ratio of the useful component of energy to total energy, including losses, are presented. (Research purpose) The research purpose is conducting experimental studies and to performing an analysis of energy losses, determining the energy parameters of a digester with proportional power control when using a thermoelectric generator. (Materials and methods) It was shown that the main indicator of the efficiency of a gas–using digester is the specific energy consumption per unit of prepared feed, as well as the effici­ency coefficient. We considered two options for determining the efficiency: calculated and experimental. (Results and discussion) The components of heat losses were given using various coefficients that vary in a wide range, which affects the accuracy of the calculation. Using experimental studies, the total gas consumption for heating the contents of the cooking container to boiling and the gas consumption for compensating heat losses and for maintaining a quiet boil were calculated, the useful component of energy for heating the product to boiling was estimated. (Conclusions) It was revealed that the total heat loss is 18.1 percent of the total energy consumption. Based on experimental data, the total gas consumption and the useful efficiency of the boiler was determined, which is equal to 84 percent. It was stated that when the cooking tank is fully loaded, the specific heat consumption is 0.017 kilowatt-hour per kilogram less than when the boiler is loaded by 20 percent.

The Future of the Czech Gas Industry

In the Czech Republic, the gas industry is a key sector for ensuring the successful growth of industrial production and the growth of the standard of living. However, the set of Green Deal agreements recently adopted by the European Union envisages the gradual reduction of natural gas consumption and its replacement by ecologically produced (green) hydrogen. However, the production of green hydrogen in the Czech Republic is not yet industrially established, and its realisation will require considerable financial sums as investments in the relevant infrastructure. This will be reflected in a significant increase in the price of gas containing the prescribed proportion of green hydrogen. The planned addition of a certain proportion of hydrogen to natural gas will bring a number of complications to the gas industry. Production of a sufficient amount of green hydrogen, which should be added to natural gas, is not ensured in the Czech Republic or in the EU and will require considerable investment in the production infrastructure, which will in the final phase be transferred for the most part to the end consumer of the mixed gas. Total gas consumption will increase by 13%, as hydrogen has three times lower calorific value compared to methane, which is the majority component of natural gas. The reduction in greenhouse gas emissions will therefore be minimal or, taking into account the carbon footprint of the additional equipment needed for hydrogen production, even negative.

Effects of automatic gas control on sevoflurane gas monitor and recovery during pancreatico-duodenectomy operation: prospective randomized study

ABSTRACT Background The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of automatic gas control (AGC) on sevoflurane gas monitoring, safety, and recovery of patients during pancreatico-duodenectomy operation. Methods Forty patients scheduled for the pancreatico-duodenectomy operation were allocated into group I manual gas control group (MGC, n = 20) and group II AGC (n = 20) group. In (the MGC group): The vaporizer set ranged from 3 to 5% Sevoflurane until reaching 1 MAC, fresh gas flow (FGF) 1–2 L/min, and FiO2 of 0.4 was set. In (the AGC group): Set target FiO2 of 0.4, end-tidal anesthetic agent (EtSev was set to 1.5–2%) with safely ventilate the patient with an FGF down to 0.3 liters per minute. Hemodynamics, anesthesia gas analysis (FiSev, EtSev, FiO2, and EtO2), total gas consumption, extubation time, incidence of perioperative hypercapnia, hypoxia, and accidental awareness were recorded. Results The volume of sevoflurane administered in the MGC group was in a mean ± standard deviation of 81.20 ± 16.47 ml which was statistically significantly greater than that administered in the AGC group (58.80 ± 10.54), P ≤ 0.001. ETSevo, FISevo, and the EtO2 were significantly larger in the MGC group than in the AGC group. The extubation time was statistically prolonged in the MGC group than in the AGC group (14.10 ± 4.75 versus 7.70 ± 1.59 min, P < 0.001). No patient developed hypoxia, hypercapnia, or awareness in both groups. Conclusion AGC maintained the targeted end-tidal sevoflurane concentration with the least sevoflurane consumption. It reduced the manual adjustment of delivered sevoflurane and oxygen. General anesthesia with manual and AGC is safe and maintains hemodynamic stability.

Integrated investigation on the nucleation and growing process of hydrate in W/O emulsion containing asphaltene

During the production and transportation of deep-water oil and gas, the low-temperature and high-pressure operating environment might induce hydrate formation and eventual blockage, which poses a serious threat to the flow assurance. Furthermore, the formation, aggregation and deposition characteristics of hydrate would become more complicated in the presence of asphaltene. Consequently, clarifying the effect of asphaltene on hydrate nucleation and growing process plays an important role in the safety production and flow assurance of deep-water oil and gas field. The kinetic characterizations of hydrate nucleation and growth in W/O systems containing asphaltene were investigated via experimental research, molecular dynamics simulations and mathematical modeling. Results revealed that the hydrate nucleation induction time increased with the increase of asphaltene content. The inhibition of hydrate nucleation by asphaltene in high-pressure (5 MPa) experiments was more pronounced than that in low-pressure (3 MPa). On the other hand, asphaltene restrained hydrate formation and the total gas consumption decreased with the increase of asphaltene content. The dynamic adsorption process of asphaltene at oil–water interface and the evolution of the surface coverage with time were elucidated by jointly solving the Ward-Tordai and Langmuir equation. Combined with the above aspects, the induction time model containing asphaltene was developed, which could provide a new perspective and methodology for deep-water flow assurance

A time series forecasting analysis of overall and sector-based natural gas demand: a developing South Asianeconomy case.

Pakistan is developing South Asian country which iscurrently considering alternative energy sources including coal, solar, compressed natural gas, and wind energy to cope with the worst energy crisis in its history. Moreover, the policy promotion of compressed natural gas especially in the transport sector has raised concerns about the demand management of natural gas to avoid future shortages and ensure sustainable use of this precious non-renewable source of energy. Against this background, this study aimed to forecast natural gas demand in Pakistan for the 2016-2030 period by applying relevant univariate time series econometric methods. Apart from forecasting the overall natural gas demand, the forecasting analysis is also conducted for natural gas demand in Pakistan's total natural gas consumption and also for natural gas consumption across the household, industrial, commercial, transport, fertilizer production, power generation, and cement production sectors. Overall, the findings revealed that ARIMA is the appropriate model for forecasting gas consumption in Pakistan. Further, the growth of increase in the level of compressed natural gas consumption in the household sector is more as compared to all other sectors of the economy up to the year 2030. The key findings show that (a) natural gas consumption is likely to grow with time, (b) mixed projection trends are observed for the overall natural gas consumption and other sector-based natural gas consumption trends, and (c) the difference between natural gas consumption and production in Pakistan is likely to grow leading to 2030. As part of the policy recommendation in line with the findings, policymakers in Pakistan should increase the availability of natural gas, particularly in sectors where its consumption is likely to be declining. In addition, more proactive measures should be undertaken to explore the existing natural gas reserves in the long run while also importing natural gas from the neighboring nations in the short run. Furthermore, the government of Pakistan should seriously consider strategizing the development of the nation's compressed natural gas sector.

Synthesis of Cu-Al LDH nanofluid and effectiveness as a promoter for CO2 hydrate formation

The present study focuses on the synthesis of a hybrid nanofluid (Cu-Al LDH) and the investigation of its effectiveness as a promoter for CO2 hydrate formation. The Cu-Al LDH nanofluid has been prepared using the one-step co-precipitation technique. XRD (X-ray diffraction) and TEM (transmission electron microscopy) analyses have been carried out to evaluate the structural features and particle size measurement. The stability of nanofluid is evaluated using zeta potential measurements. The hydrate formation experiments are conducted in a pilot-scale reactor of 25 L volume with a design pressure of 180 bar. The wall temperature of the reactor is set at 2 °C. The charging of the reactor is carried out in both single and dual-stage at the maximum pressure of 30 bar. The results on the enhancement of gas absorption, total gas consumption, and water to hydrate conversion compared to pure water are reported. Parametric study on the effect of Cu-Al LDH nanofluid concentrations (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 wt%) and molar ratios (Cu2+:Al3+: Na+ = 4:1:4 and 4:1:4.7) have been carried out. The gas absorption process is more sensitive to molar ratio than the concentration of LDH nanofluid, and about 20 times increase in absorption takes place due to LDH nanofluid in dual gas charging mode. The shuttle effect of the nanoparticle is primarily attributed to the increase in CO2 gas absorption. The strength of gas absorption influences the hydrate morphology. Accordingly, hydrate formation is initiated from the gas–liquid interface in low CO2 absorption case, and hydrate slurry formation inside the bulk fluid followed by layer-wise growth of hydrate from the interface takes place in high gas absorption case. Maximum 176.19% increase in gas consumption is observed at 0.5 wt% nanofluid concentration for (Cu2+:Al3+: Na+ = 4:1:4.7) molar ratio compared to pure water.

Urban Household Energy Consumption Forecasting Based on Energy Price Impact Mechanism

The energy price influence system is one of the key mechanisms in the study of energy consumption. China’s household energy consumption has obvious regional differences, and rising income levels and urbanisation have changed the willingness and ability of households to make energy consumption choices. Based on the linear price effect of household energy consumption, this paper explores the scenario characteristics of energy prices affecting energy consumption, taking electricity and natural gas consumption as examples. Based on household energy consumption statistics from 2005 to 2018 in 36 major cities across China, the accuracy and change trends of household energy consumption forecasts are investigated through the decision tree-support vector machine (DT-SVR) non-linear forecasting technique. The study shows that the non-linear forecasting technique accurately portrays the predicted trends of changes in total urban household electricity and natural gas consumption. Within the less developed regions of economic development, income levels are still the main constraint on changes in urban household energy consumption, and the stimulating effect of income levels on household energy consumption has not been seen in the process of economic development in these less developed regions. Urbanisation as an important factor in examining household energy consumption, different development patterns and development processes will gradually be reflected in scenario aspects such as the choice of urban household energy consumption and changes in total consumption.