Levels Of Total Dissolved Solids Research Articles

Laboratory Comparative Study of Anionic and Cationic High-Viscosity Friction Reducers in Moderate to Extremely High Total Dissolved Solids Environments

Summary High-viscosity friction reducers (HVFRs) have been recently gaining more attention and increasing in use, not only as friction-reducing agents but also as proppant carriers. Reusing produced water has also been driven by both environmental and economic benefits. Currently, most friction reducers on the market are anionic friction reducers, which are fully compatible with most produced water with low to medium level of total dissolved solids (TDS) but show a significant drop at high TDS conditions in terms of their friction reduction performance in most cases. On the contrary, cationic friction reducers are believed to have better TDS tolerance and friction reduction performance under high TDS conditions. However, concerns remain about performance of using anionic and cationic HVFRs with produced water to transport proppant. The ultimate objective of this experimental study is to comparably analyze the proppant transport capabilities of anionic and cationic HVFRs in high TDS and reservoir temperature environments. An anionic HVFR and a cationic HVFR, both at 4 gallons per thousand gallons (GPT), were selected and analyzed. The rheology measurements of these anionic and cationic HVFRs were conducted in deionized (DI) water and high TDS water conditions. Static and dynamic proppant settling tests were conducted at various TDS conditions at reservoir temperature. Wall retardation and particle hindering on the performance of both anionic and cationic HVFRs were also observed and investigated using the particle image velocimetry (PIV) method. The results showed that the anionic HVFR had higher viscosity than the cationic HVFR due to larger molecular weight and had much higher elasticity. Increase in TDS concentration would decrease the viscous and elastic profiles of both anionic and cationic HVFRs. In particular, the elastic profile became negligible for both HVFRs. Besides, the “critical salinity” phenomenon was observed. Above this salinity, the viscosity of HVFRs was no longer affected by increasing TDS level. The “critical salinity” for both of the 4-GPT anionic and cationic HVFRs was in the range of 30 000 to 200 000 mg/L. Moreover, the cationic HVFR had lower “critical salinity” than the anionic HVFR. Finally, the correlation between rheology and proppant transport capabilities of HVFRs is discussed in this paper, and a simplified decision-making process of selecting fracturing fluids is proposed.

Heavy metal pollution in leachates and its impacts on the quality of groundwater resources around Iringa municipal solid waste dumpsite.

Heavy metal pollution in groundwater due to leachates leaking from the Iringa municipal dumpsite was investigated. The pollution was studied by analyzing pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and heavy metals (Fe, Pb, Cr, Cd, Cu, Ni, Mn, and Zn) in leachates collected within the dumpsite and groundwater samples from residential wells close to the dumpsite. The pH of the leachate samples varied from 7.40 to 9.10, implying alkaline behavior and the methanogenic phase of solid waste deposits. The levels of EC, TDS, and heavy metals (Fe, Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, and Zn) in leachates were above the national and/or international standards. On other hand, groundwater samples presented pH values ranging from 7.15 to 7.60 which were within the World Health Organization acceptable limit. The concentrations of EC, TDS, Fe, Pb, Ni, Mn, and Zn in most groundwater samples exceeded the national and/or international permissible limits for drinking water. In addition, the water quality indices (WQI) of groundwater samples ranged between 8.30 and 17.90, which implied the excellent quality of groundwater sources. However, the presence of high levels of heavy metals above the permissible limits in both leachate and groundwater samples signified potential risks to the environment and public health. Therefore, the present study calls for proper management of municipal solid waste to reduce the potential risks of further contamination on the groundwater resources and environment around the Iringa municipal dumpsite.

Spatial-Temporal Analysis of Physicochemical Parameters of Three Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes Indicating Threats in Ecological Sustainability

The Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes provide substantial economic, environmental and social benefits across diverse ecological settings. Sustainability of these benefits is affected substantially by the mega-environmental level climate change and cumulative anthropogenic effects at the lakes and in their catchments landscapes. To provide an insight on some of the challenges that affect the lakes' health, this study assessed major water physicochemical status of three Rift Valley lakes: namely, Chamo, Koka and Ziway and compared with previous data. The water physicochemical data were measured in-situ for two years, i.e., from May 2018 to April 2020. Nutrients loading to the lakes were analyzed from water samples. The study demonstrated that water temperature, pH, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity and total phosphorus (TP) varied significantly between seasons within and between the lakes. The findings demonstrated that the EC and TDS levels during the period of this study were higher than previous reported levels. The findings also showed that establishment and invasion of water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) weed had association with nutrient loading into the lakes and vegetation in the lake's shore. The very likely anthropogenic effects associated factors including water turbidity, soluble reactive phosphorus, and nitrate-N concentrations varied among the lakes, across seasons and time. Our findings indicate that the urgent need of education and participatory intervention of watershed management, proper agricultural practices, strict and enforced municipal and industrial waste management practices, protection of wetlands vegetation and delimitation of the lakes' buffer zones to sustain the services of the lakes. Keywords : Chamo, Koka, nutrient pollution; water hyacinth, Ziway DOI: 10.7176/JEES/12-9-02 Publication date: September 30 th 2022

Optimization of the biological salt removal process from artificial industrial wastewater with high TDS by Spirulina microalga using the response surface method.

This study aimed to examine the direct applicability of Spirulina maxima as a new conceptual method for removing total dissolved solids (TDS) from artificial industrial wastewater (AIW). In this study, live microalgal cells were used in a photobioreactor for TDS removal. The effects of TDS levels, pH, light intensity, and light retention time on microalgal growth and TDS removal were investigated, and optimal conditions were determined using the response surface method and Box-Behnken Design (RSM-BBD). The calculated values of coefficient of determination (R2), adjusted R2, and predicted R2 were 0.9754, 0.9508, and 0.636, respectively, which are close to the R2 values and validated the proposed statistical model. A second-order model could optimally determine the interactions between the studied variables according to the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed that increasing TDS levels reduced microalgal growth and TDS removal efficiency in AIW. S. maxima reduced TDS by 76% and 47% at TDS concentrations of 2,000-4,000 mg/L, respectively, when used in AIW. Maximum biomass efficiency (1.8 g/L) was obtained at a TDS concentration of 2,000 mg/L with other parameters optimized.

Phycoremediation of textile and tannery industrial effluents using microalgae and their consortium for biodiesel production

The study reveals the treatment of textile and tannery effluents using freshwater microalgal strains, Chlorella vulgaris (NRMC-F 0128), Scenedesmus dimorphus (NRMC-F 0178), Coelastrella sp., (NRMC-F 0179) and Chlorococcum sp., (NRMC-F 0181) isolated from betel field. The physiochemical parameters of the textile and tannery effluents were analyzed prior to the experimentations. The nutrient removal efficiency of all the cultures was evaluated in both lab and outdoor conditions. Further, a consortium of two efficiently growing and lipid producing strains, Chlorella vulgaris (NRMC-F 0128), Scenedesmus dimorphus (NRMC-F 0178) was tested against effluent degradation under 30 L pond conditions. The levels of pH, TDS (total dissolved solids), EC and nitrite, nitrate, sodium, phosphate, calcium, magnesium, lead, iron, copper and cadmium of both the textile mill and tannery industrial effluents were reduced upon algae mediated remediation. Further, Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus dimorphus consortium produced high amounts of lipid in lab conditions of about 31.20% and 29.50% using textile mill effluent and tannery industrial effluent, respectively; while in outdoor conditions, the lipid was 30.40% and 28.50% respectively. Eventually, the fatty acid analysis showed oleic acid as the major fatty acid in lipids of the consortium, which makes it a plausible candidate for biodiesel production.

Total Dissolved Solids and Their Removal Techniques

Total dissolved solids (TDS) due to both geogenic and anthropogenic contaminations, is one of the preliminary as well as essential parameters among others to describe water quality. It includes organic and inorganic components, heavy metals, salts, other dissolved substances, and others due to indiscriminate disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents, urban and/or agricultural runoff which exists in the form of micro or nano level in nature. Higher TDS levels in water severely impact health and the environment. For instance, it causes gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, genotoxic, respiratory, skin, and hepatic effects in humans. High TDS level (> 500 ppm) results in excessive scaling in household appliances (e.g., pipes, heaters, and boilers) thereby reducing their efficiency. Therefore, the removal of TDS from various water matrices is taking paramount importance to minimize its impact on health and the environment. Various TDS removal technologies based on the membrane, ion, and temperature gradient are employed to treat water. In this review paper, several TDS removal technologies for instance reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, distillation, ultrafiltration, forward osmosis, precipitation, desalination, ion exchange, electrochemical techniques, electrodialysis, electrolysis, electrocoagulation, and adsorption are discussed in detail.

Characterizing Various Produced Waters from Shale Energy Extraction within the Context of Reuse

Environmental concerns with unconventional oil and gas development are frequently centered on elevated water usage and the induction of seismic events during waste disposal. Reuse of produced water for subsequent production well stimulation can effectively address these concerns, but the variability among such samples must be well understood. Twenty-four samples of wastewater from unconventional oil and gas development were collected from south and west Texas to assess their variability and feasibility for direct reuse. Bulk metrics were collected, including total organic carbon, total nitrogen, as well as total dissolved and suspended solids. The profiles of pertinent inorganic constituents were also evaluated. Variations were not only seen between regions but also among samples collected from the same region. For example, the average total organic carbon for Eagle Ford samples collected was 700 ± 500 mg/L, while samples collected from the Permian Basin featured an average total organic carbon concentration of 600 ± 900 mg/L. The Permian Basin total organic carbon ranged from 38 to 2600 mg/L. The total dissolved solids levels had the same variability between regions, with an average value for Eagle Ford of 20,000 ± 10,000 mg/L and a Permian Basin value of 150,000 ± 40,000 mg/L. However, samples were more reproducible within a given region. Collectively, the data indicate that the direct reuse of raw produced water for subsequent production well development without treatment is not feasible based on the reported reuse thresholds. Unconventional development wastewater samples from the Permian Basin were also compared to produced water values from conventional oil and gas wells in the same region, as reported by the United States Geological Survey. Samples collected in the Permian Basin consistently demonstrated lower ionic strength compared to conventional produced water data.

Bio-intervention phyto-based material for raw goatskin preservation: a cleaner-sustainable approach.

The regular practice of using sodium chloride to preserve raw animal skin triggers increasing salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS) in the surface and groundwater during rehydration soaking operations. The process disrupts the lives of animals, plants, and human beings. This paper is focused on the phyto-based short-term preservation of goatskin to reduce salinity in tannery soaking operations. The indigenous Persicaria hydropiper leaf was investigated to assess the preservation of animal skin to diminish salinity and TDS of tannery soaking wastewater. Methanol-extracted leaf was characterized by GC-MS and FTIR for chemical composition analysis and affiliated functional groups. Fresh goatskins were preserved at the preliminary, laboratory, and pilot-scale scenarios to establish the best possible mixture and monitor the moisture and nitrogen content, shrinkage temperature, microorganism analysis, and pollution load at each level. The processed leathers derived from the preserved skins with an optimal mixture of 10% leaf paste with 8% salt and conventional 50% salt were tested for their physical strength. Finally, the modification in fiber structure due to the varieties of preserving chemicals was evaluated through a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and detected insignificant variation of leather fibers. The findings reported in this study can be applied to the industrial level and remove certain amounts of salinity and TDS from tannery soaking wastewater.

An Assessment on Water Quality (TDS, EC, ORP, and PH) of Selected Boreholes in Baraton Centre

Drinking water is a very essential part of every living being. Due to shortage of tap water for many households in Kenya, Borehole has become one of the main sources of water, which offers support to human health, diversity in the ecosystem and economic growth. Water quality is essential for policy formulation affecting health. This is due to the fact that, ground water resources are commonly vulnerable to pollution which degrades their quality. Some of the toxicological effect that have been reported of drinking polluted water include cancer, genetic aberrations among other ailments due to borehole minerals and metals. In this study, borehole water quality analysis involved determining the levels of Total dissolved solids (TDS), Electrical conductivity (EC), Oxidation-Reduction potential, and pH to aid in monitoring borehole water data. This was compared against the standards set by W.H.O, who have created water quality guidelines which provides a Limit Value for each parameter for drinking water. It is crucial that a continuous monitoring of water quality is done at regular periods due to global changes in population, increased pollution and use of river waters resulting in the consumption of contaminated drinking water. Many people suffer from varied water borne diseases hence the great interest in having details about various physico-chemical parameters such TDS, EC, ORP, salinity and pH determined. The samples collected were analyzed. The average PH was 5.25 which is not fit to be consumed thus posing a risk to humanity. The electrical conductivity was averagely 113µS/cm. The TDS level was averagely 56.5 ppm. The average ORP was 376.8 mV. There was a variation in the samples collected depending with the season. By use of standard analytical methods, the research investigated the variation of pH, EC, ORP, TDS and salinity which is a good indicator of water quality. WHO has asserted that, the safest water should be of lower conductivity of 200 to 800 µS/cm, ORP of -50 millivolts, TDS of 300 parts per million (ppm) and pH of 6.5-8.5. The study has thus compared the levels against the above standards and also presented the correlation between the parameters in addition to showing the seasonal variations of the above physical –chemical parameters.

The Influence of Aluminum Slag Ash for Paving Block Production

Aluminum slag ash commonly used as road and river embankments. It had disposed in an open site and potentially increase ammonia, sodium, potassium, chloride and total dissolved solids levels in the surrounding environment. As much as 90% of Portland cement is composed of a mixture of elements of Ca, Si, Al, and Fe which are bonded into certain complex compounds. This study aims to analyze the influence of cement substitution with aluminum slag ash on the compressive strength and water absorption capacity of the paving block, and the appropriate type of paving block quality which is following SNI 03-0691-1996. The test objects used were paving blocks with a ratio of cement and sand of 1:3, where the composition of the addition of aluminum slag ash used was 5%; 10%; 15%; and 20%. The tests in this study were on compressive strength, water absorption capacity, and Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) tests. The optimum composition is 10% aluminum slag ash in cement substitution. The type of quality is category B paving for parking equipment. The results of the TCLP on a 10% composition paving obtained that the parameter concentration is below the TCLP quality standard.

Port Dickson Surface Water Quality Status: A Year with COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has become a planetary concern that affecting the sustenance of the human population all around the globe. The effective measured has been taken in Malaysia to control the virus transmission by limiting the human vitality which unsurprisingly propitious to the environment. A monitoring study was conducted to assess the water quality status of surface seawater along the Port Dickson coast based on the Malaysian Marine Water Quality Index (MMWQI) and Malaysian Marine Water Quality Standards (MMWQCS) with an interval period of a year (March 2020-March 2021). In situ, water quality parameters incorporate temperature, pH, salinity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured at 14 sampling sites to evaluate the biochemical characteristics of water. Surface water samples were collected from the same sites and transported back to Universiti Putra Malaysia for nitrate (NO3-), ammonia (NH3), phosphate (PO4), biochemical oxygen demands (BOD), fecal coliform (Escherichia coli), and total suspended solids (TSS) analyses. The MMWQI showed the status of surface water from the Port Dickson coast was classified as moderate quality (50.41 - 64.05) for both sampling events. However, there are some indexes that showed significant decreases (p< 0.05) in the latter year. The concentration of nutrient pollution such as phosphate, nitrates, ammonia, fecal coliform as well as oil and grease, was decreased by 11.12%, 77.39%, 82.4%, 90.26%, and 99.9% respectively. The water parameters namely TDS, pH, and BOD levels were significantly decreased by 1.77%, 20.73%, and 77.16%. Certain parameters listed in the MMWQS such as temperature, pH, ammonia, fecal coliform, oil and grease were classified as Class 1 in March 2021. These occurrences recorded were greatly influenced by the reduction of the substantial human activities around the recreational beach of Port Dickson followed by the declaration of Movement Control Order (MCO) in Malaysia.

Water and forage intake, diet digestibility, and blood parameters of beef cows and heifers consuming water with varying concentrations of total dissolved salts.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of water quality on water intake (WI), forage intake, diet digestibility, and blood constituents in beef cows and growing beef heifers. This was a replicated 5 × 5 Latin square with five drinking water treatments within each square: 1) fresh water (Control); 2) brackish water (100 BRW treatment) with approximately 6,000 mg/kg total dissolved solids (TDS); 3) same TDS level as 100 BRW achieved by addition of NaCl to fresh water (100 SLW); 4) 50% brackish water and 50% fresh water to achieve approximately 3,000 mg/kg TDS (50 BRW); and 5) same TDS level as 50 BRW achieved by addition of NaCl to fresh water (50 SLW). Each of the five 21-d periods consisted of 14 d of adaptation and 5 d of data collection. Animals were housed individually and fed mixed alfalfa (Medicago sativa) grass hay cubes. Feed and WI were recorded daily. Data were analyzed with animal as the experimental unit. Age, treatment, and age × treatment were fixed effects, and animal ID within age was the random variable for intake, digestibility, and blood parameter data. Water and feed intake were greater than expected, regardless of age or water treatment. No treatment × age interactions were identified for WI (P = 0.71), WI expressed as g/kg body weight (BW; P = 0.70), or dry matter intake (DMI; P = 0.21). However, there was an age × treatment tendency for DMI when scaled to BW (P = 0.09) in cows consuming 100 BRW compared with fresh water. No differences were found for the other three treatments. Heifers provided 50 SLW water consumed less (P < 0.05) feed (g/kg BW) compared with heifers provided fresh water and 100 BRW. No differences (P > 0.05) in water, DMI, feed intake, or diet digestibility were found due to water quality treatment. In conclusion, under these conditions, neither absolute WI, absolute DMI, nor diet digestibility was influenced by the natural brackish or saline water used in this experiment. These results suggest that further research is necessary to determine thresholds for TDS or salinity concentration resulting in reduced water and/or feed intake and diet digestibility.

Determining Bacterial Load and Water Quality Parameters of Chlorinated Tomato Flume Tanks in Florida Packinghouses

Monitoring and maintenance of water quality in dump tanks or flume systems is crucial to maintaining proper sanitizer levels to prevent pathogen cross-contamination during postharvest washing of tomatoes, but there is limited information on how organic matter influences sanitizer efficacy in the water. The main objective of this study was to monitor water quality in flume tanks and evaluate the efficacy of postharvest washing of tomatoes in commercial packinghouses. Flume tank water samples (n = 3) were collected on an hourly basis from three packinghouses in Florida and analyzed for pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), free chlorine, chemical oxygen demand (COD), oxidation-reduction potential, and turbidity. Additionally, three flume-water samples were collected and tested for total aerobic plate count (APC), total coliforms (TC), and Escherichia coli. Fresh tomatoes (n = 3), both before and after washing, were collected and analyzed for the same bacterial counts. Turbidity, COD, and TDS levels in flume water increased over time in all packinghouses. Correlations observed include COD and turbidity (r = 0.631), turbidity and TDS (r = 0.810), and oxidation-reduction potential and chlorine (r = 0.660). APC for water samples had an average range of 0.0 to 4.7 log CFU/mL and TC average range of 0.0 to 4.7 log CFU/mL. All water samples were negative for E. coli. The average APC for pre- and postflume tomatoes from the three packinghouses was 6.0 log CFU per tomato and ranged from 2.2 to 7.4 log CFU per tomato. The average TC count was <1.5 and 7.0 log CFU per tomato for pre- and postwash tomatoes, respectively. There was no significant effect (P > 0.05) of postharvest washing on the microbiological qualities of tomatoes. Water quality in flume tanks deteriorated over time in all packinghouses during a typical operational day of 4 to 8 h.

Effect of Increased Salt Water Intake on the Production and Composition of Dairy Goat Milk.

Simple SummaryThe high consumption of water by livestock is a major drawback from an environmental point of view. In addition, the fact that arid or semi-arid areas have water with high salinity can decrease the quality of the products derived from these animals. Therefore, the present work is proposed with the objective of understanding how the supply of water with different salinities can affect the quality of milk. Therefore, the results of this work will derive important conclusions of vital importance for farmers in these areas.Due to its necessity and magnitude, water is essential for animal nutrition. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of increasing levels of water salinity on the quality of goat milk in the Brazilian semiarid region. Twenty-four multiparous Alpine goats, with an average live weight of 38.0 ± 4.0 kg and an average lactation period of 30 days, distributed entirely at random, were used. The experiment lasted 64 days including an initial period of 14 days of adaption to the diet. The experimental treatments consisted of water with different levels of total dissolved solids (TDS): 640, 3188, 5740, and 8326 mg L−1, obtained using sodium chloride (NaCl). Increasing the levels of TDS in drinking water from 640 to 8326 mg L−1 did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect the production and the physicochemical composition of the milk. There was a linear increase (p < 0.05) in the water consumption and acidity variables as a function of the total dissolved solid levels. The mineral composition of the milk was not altered with increasing levels of TDS in water from 640 to 8326 mg L−1. There was no negative effect (p > 0.05) for any of the sensorial attributes analyzed in relation to the treatments. Therefore, as a general conclusion, based on the analyses carried out in this experiment, it was found that water with total dissolved solids, when supplied for short periods of up to 48 days, does not alter the production, physicochemical characteristics, or the organoleptic properties of goat’s milk.

Assessment and mapping of the agro-ecological risk in the Mina plain (northwestern Algeria): Soil salinity and irrigation water quality

Abstract The objective of this study is to contribute in assessing and mapping of the salinity risks level of soil and groundwater for irrigation in the Mina plain. The experimentation was carried out on a surface area of 4000 ha. Electromagnetic conductivity (EM) measurements and soil and well water samples were taken and analysed. The results showed an important spatial variability of the electrical conductivity (EC) of saturated paste extracts (ECe), which varied between 1.35 and 28.8 dS/m. The isovalues map of ECe was estimated by the regression equation and interpolated by the ordinary kriging (OK) method which showed that the area of saline soils (ECe &gt; 4 dS/m) represented 90% of the study area. The results also showed poor to unsuitable well water quality. To find the risk of salinity and sodium, the water points were classified as C3S3 (2.5%), C4S2 (5%), C4S3 (30%) and C4S4 (62.5%). Spatial distribution maps of total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity of water (ECw) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) interpolated by inverse distance weighting (IDW) showed too high risk levels of ECw (&gt;5000 μS/cm) and TDS (&gt;3000 mg/l) occupying a large wellfield (70%); with regard to SAR (&gt;18), 36% of the groundwater had a high risk of sodium. These results showed that the choice of tolerant crops, redevelopment of drainage systems and irrigation with less saline water should be designed for the sustainability of soil productivity and agro-ecosystems.

Integrated ion exchange-based system for nitrate and sulfate removal from water of different matrices: Analysis and optimization using response surface methodology and Taguchi experimental design techniques

Although sequestering nitrate by anion exchange resins (AERs) is a proven and well-established technology, many process problems and challenges still exist, such as interference, nitrate dumping, total dissolved solids (TDS) limitations, brine waste disposal, etc. An engineered-integrated approach was devised and assessed to mitigate such limitations. The overall process optimization was based on screening, analyzing, and optimizing each respective step. A front-end sulfate removal step was suggested, evaluated, which yielded removal efficiencies >95%. Back-end options were also introduced, including reduced brine and brine wastes, recycling possibility, and usage as mixed-fertilizer with a NO3/Cl ratio of 0.65 as confirmed by mass balance calculations. Taguchi robust designs (TRD), Box-Behnken Designs (BBD), and central composite design (CCD) experimental design methods were used, enabling information mining from a minimum number of experiments. A one-factor-at-a-time strategy was applied and the regeneration process was optimized using TRD. Response analysis and regression revealed that acid concentration and volume are the most influential factors. Selectivity order was determined as SO42-->Cl−>HCO3− according to their relative coefficients of the BBD and CCD regression models. Field trials confirmed the robustness and viability of the proposed integrated approach. A process flow diagram was devised. Merits of the proposed system include: a) possible resolution of sulfate competition and nitrate dumping, b) elimination of brine waste problems, c) tolerate higher TDS levels than ever possible for AERs, d) improved economics, e) improved process robustness, f) mitigate the corrosiveness of produced water, and g) fulfilling zero liquid discharge criteria.

Fault Control on Groundwater Flow in An Alluvial Aquifer, Chaman and Khojak Basins, Balochistan, Pakistan

Geological structures such as faults play a critical role in the flow of fluids in a reservoir by affecting itspermeability. This study explores the role of the Chaman Fault in the distribution of hydrological division, groundwaterseparation of the aquifer systems of Khojak and Chaman basins. The Chaman Fault is a left-lateral strike-slip transformplate boundary located at the border city of Chaman, District Killa Abdullah, Balochistan. The Chaman fault plays animportant role in the division of groundwater in the subsurface, accommodating the structural compartment of theaquifer system. The studies showed that the strike-slip movement of the fault made the aquifer impervious along thefault line. This assertion may also be confirmed by the drastic change in the water table across the fault. Sharp changesin the groundwater table and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were observed during the study. The Karazes which are anindigenous method of irrigation is present in the eastern foothills of Khojak mountains called Khojak basin. Here thewater table is as shallow as ≈ 6 meters in comparison to the western side of the fault, where the water table drops to≈274 meters towards the valley of Chaman basin. The average TDS level on the eastern side of the fault line is 773mg/L and 1361 mg/L on the western side. Therefore, the Chaman fault is acting as a groundwater barrier which isfeeding the Karezes for centuries.

Techno-commercial Assessment of Concurrent Municipal Brown Field Reclamation Procedures: A Pivotal Case study of Jawahar Nagar Dump Site

Techno-commercial Assessment of Concurrent Municipal Brown Field Reclamation Procedures: A Pivotal Case study of Jawahar Nagar Dump Site

Effects of Seasonal Variation on Performance of Conventional Wastewater Treatment System

The study was to determine the seasonal differences of conventional wastewater treatment process. This was done by sampling and analyses of wastewater samples from four different points during the dry and wet seasons of the year 2019. Water samples were taken from influent point, primary effluent, trickling filter effluent and final effluent. Gravimetric method was used in determining Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). The BOD 5 technique was used for determination of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the digestion method was used for determination Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Temperature, pH and conductivity were measured using respective meters. Analysis of Variance showed that there was significant difference (p &lt; 0.05) in all the parameters quantified at all the points of treatment during the two seasons. The results showed that BOD and COD both reduced from one point to the next during the two seasons of study. The TSS levels increased after primary pond effluent undergoing treatment at the trickling filter and the temperature also increased after the trickling filter effluent undergoing treatment at oxidation ponds. The levels of conductivity and TDS decreased from one treatment stage to the next during dry season but during the wet season the levels of these parameters increased from one stage to the next except that the levels reduced after the primary pond effluent underwent treatment at the trickling filter. The various stages of wastewater treatment plant under were effective during the two seasons however, wet season recorded lower figures for most of the parameters. Keywords: effluent, influent, wastewater, seasonal variation, ponds DOI: 10.7176/JEES/11-7-06 Publication date: July 31 st 2021

Comments: Water Pressures

Drought conditions rated as “moderate or worse” affected 31 US states as of 8 June, as reported by the US National Integrated Drought Information System. Particularly dry are the West and Upper Midwest regions, relevant to the Permian and Bakken, respectively. While not a record-level drought, attention is turning to the Missouri River in North Dakota where streamflow levels are at low levels for this time of year—about 48% below the seasonal average. About 96% of the water in North Dakota’s rivers and streams flows through it, making it one of the main sources of fresh water for oil and gas production in the Bakken. In the extreme drought, water restrictions could come into play. Throughout the industry, recycling and reuse of frac and produced water have been studied, and where the chemical makeup of the frac or produced water is suitable for optimal and economical treatment, it has been implemented. However, Bakken production is typically associated with 1.0 to 1.5 bbl of produced water per barrel of oil (a water cut of approximately 50%). It is highly saline with total dissolved solids (TDS) ranging up to 350,000 mg/L (seawater is about 35,000, or 10 times less salty than Bakken brine). Treatment options for such high TDS levels are limited and often cost-prohibitive. The Bakken’s produced water volumes increased fourfold since 2008 to about 740 million bbl per year due to increasing volumes per well and increasing water cut. Produced water disposal volumes in the same period increased fivefold to about 680 million bbl per year. More than 95% of saltwater disposal (SWD) targets the Inyan Kara Formation, the lowermost sandstone interval of the Dakota Group. The increase in SWD volumes has resulted in localized areas of high pressure in the formation in geographic regions associated with high levels of oil and gas activity. This increased pressure affects the economics and risk associated with the drilling of new wells that now require additional intermediate casing strings (“Dakota Strings”), adding a cost of $300,000 to $700,000 per well. About 200 wells to date have been identified with additional casing strings, according to the Energy &amp; Environmental Research Center (EERC). Faced with the challenges of high salinity in recycling/reuse of produced water, constraints on SWD injection, freshwater limitations, pressure regulation, and inflated drilling costs, a 2-year project was begun in January 2020 which may hold promise for greater use of the produced water. Participants in the $1.3-million project are EERC, Nuverra Environmental Solutions, and the US Department of Energy.