Levels Of Total Dissolved Solids Research Articles

Low-Energy Desalination Techniques, Development of Capacitive Deionization Systems, and Utilization of Activated Carbon

Water desalination technology has emerged as a critical area of research, particularly with the advent of more cost-effective alternatives to conventional methods, such as reverse osmosis and thermal evaporation. Given the vital importance of water for life and the scarcity of potable water for agriculture and livestock—especially in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia—the capacitive deionization (CDI) method for removing salt from water has been highlighted as the most economical choice compared to other techniques. CDI applies a voltage difference across two porous electrodes to extract salt ions from saline water. This study will investigate water desalination using CDI, utilizing a compact DC power source under 5 volts and a standard current of 2 amperes. We will convert waste materials like sunflower seeds, peanut shells, and rice husks into activated carbon through carbonization and chemical activation to improve its pore structure. Critical parameters for desalination, including voltage, flow rate, and total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration, have been established. The initial TDS levels are set at 2000, 1500, 1000, and 500 ppm, with flow rates of 38.2, 16.8, and 9.5 mL/min across the different voltage settings of 2.5, 2, and 1.5 volts, applicable to both direct and inverse desalination methods. The efficiency at TDS concentrations of 2000, 1500, and 1000 ppm remains between 18% and 20% for up to 8 min. Our results indicate that the desalination process operates effectively at a TDS level of 750 ppm, achieving a maximum efficiency of 45% at a flow rate of 9.5 mL/min. At voltages of 2.5 V, 2 V, and 1.5 V, efficiencies at 3 min are attained with a constant flow rate of 9.5 mL/min and a TDS of 500 ppm, with the maximum desalination efficiency reaching 56%.

Assessing the potential of cow dung and carpet grass as feedstock for biogas production to power a generator

This study investigates the potential of cow dung and carpet grass as feedstock for biogas production, aiming to provide a sustainable energy source for powering generators. A digester was fabricated to produce biogas from a mixture of cow dung and carpet grass under controlled anaerobic digestion conditions. The composition and energy content of the biogas were analyzed, and the biogas yield was measured over a 30-day period. Key parameters such as pH, system temperature, and total dissolved solids (TDS) were monitored to understand their influence on biogas production. Results showed that the pH values ranged from 4.1 to 5.2, which is lower than the optimal range for methanogenesis, yet biogas production was still feasible, peaking at pH 5.0. System temperature ranged from 28°C to 36.8°C, with the highest biogas yield observed at the upper end of this range. TDS levels fluctuated between 1,331 ppm and 3,060 ppm, indicating variations in the feedstock composition and microbial activity. The purified biogas successfully powered a 2.5 KVA generator for 30 minutes, demonstrating its practical application as an alternative energy source. This study highlights the potential of using cow dung and carpet grass for biogas production, contributing to sustainable energy solutions and waste management strategies.

Machine Learning Algorithms for Water Quality Management Using Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Data Analysis

Our research project specifically focuses on evaluating groundwater quality in six West Texas counties. We aim to determine whether environmental changes have any impact on the levels of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the water supplied to the public. To achieve this goal, we will be utilizing advanced machine learning algorithms to analyze TDS levels and create geospatial maps for each year between the 1990s and 2010s. To ensure the accuracy of our data, we have gathered information from two trusted sources: the Texas Water Development Board (TWDB) and the Groundwater Database (GWDB). We have analyzed the TDS and other elemental analyses from TWDB–GWDB lab reports and compared them with the quality cutoff set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Our approach involves a thorough examination of the data to identify any emerging patterns. The machine learning algorithm has been successfully trained and tested, producing highly accurate results that effectively predict water quality. Our results have been validated through extensive testing, highlighting the potential of machine learning approaches in the fields of environmental research. Overall, our findings will contribute to the development of more effective policies and regulations in predicting groundwater quality and improving water resource management in Texas. Therefore, this research provides important information for groundwater protection and the development of plans for water resource use in the future.

Nutrition Temperature and TDS Control System with Fuzzy Logic on Pak Choy Hydroponics (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis)

Hydroponics is a method of cultivation that does not use soil as a medium, allowing it to be applied in limited spaces such as urban households. One of the vegetable plants that can be grown using hydroponics is pak choy (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis). To produce healthy pak choy plants that can efficiently absorb nutrients in a hydroponic system, several factors need to be considered, such as the level of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the nutrient solution, nutrient solution temperature, and air humidity in the hydroponic environment. The ideal nutrient solution temperature for hydroponic plants falls within the range of 25-27°C. In this system, a monitoring and control system will be designed to optimize the growth of pak choy plants in a Deep Flow Technique (DFT) hydroponic system. In this system, the nutrient solution temperature will be controlled with a set point of 25°C using an on/off control for a peltier device. To maintain the TDS level at a set point of 1200 ppm in the nutrient solution, fuzzy logic control will be employed, generating timer-based control signals for the nutrient pump A, nutrient pump B, and water pump. The monitoring system will be displayed on an Internet of Things (IoT) dashboard platform, such as ThingSpeak.

A comparative assessment of Lead (Pb) concentration and physicochemical parameters in groundwater from the Kabwe mine and Lusaka non-mine sites, Zambia

This study addresses the comparative influence of physicochemical parameters on the dissolution of Pb and its levels in the groundwater of former Pb mining areas in Kabwe and non-mining areas in Lusaka, Zambia. This cross-sectional study analyzed 61 groundwater samples from hand pump boreholes using atomic absorption spectrometry. Physicochemical parameters were measured, including electrical conductivity (EC), temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), and pH. Statistical analysis involved the Wilcoxon test, Spearman’s correlation, robust linear regression, Principal component analysis (PCA), and generalized additive models. Pb concentrations were particularly higher (p = 0.029; median = 0.131 mg/L) in mining areas compared to non-mining areas (median = 0.071 mg/L). The EC in the mining areas (median = 585 µS/cm) was significantly (p = 0.001) lower than those in the non-mining area (median = 1100 µS/cm). Likewise, TDS levels revealed a significant (p = 0.001) difference between the mining area (median = 303 ppm) and the non-mining area (median = 601 ppm). The median pH values for groundwater samples in the mining and non-mining areas were 6.96 and 7.27, respectively. Spearman’s rank correlation revealed a significant (rho = − 0.405; p = 0.036) inverse relationship between Pb concentrations and pH in non-mining areas. Robust linear regression and generalized additive models underscored a significant (p = 0.016) non-linear relationship between temperature and Pb across all areas, with the non-mining area demonstrating a significant (p = 0.003) non-linear relationship between temperature and pH concerning Pb. The study associates mining activities with increased Pb concentrations, underscoring it as a principal contamination source. In contrast, elemental dissolutions from the basement limestone with dolomite might increase Pb concentration in the non-mining areas. The observed positive relationship between temperature and pH in non-mining areas highlights its positive interactions with Pb mobility while temperature greatly influences Pb dissolutions in mining areas.

A comprehensive assessment of water quality in Fayoum depression, Egypt: identifying contaminants, antibiotic pollution, and adsorption treatability study for remediation

This study aimed to assess the current water quality status across various regions within the Fayoum depression by examining water canals, drains, and potential contaminants impacting public health and the local ecosystem. Additionally, an adsorption treatability investigation was conducted on various antibiotics identified during the assessment. Fifteen sampling points were selected across the Fayoum depression, covering surface water bodies and agricultural drainage systems during both winter and summer seasons. Physico-chemical, microbiological, and antibiotic analyses were performed on collected water samples. The water quality parameters investigated included pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and concentrations of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and tetracycline. The findings revealed significant variations in water quality parameters among different water sources, categorizing them into three types: irrigation canals, polluted canals, and drains. High contamination levels were observed in certain water canals and drains due to untreated sewage and agricultural drainage discharge. Notably, elevated TDS levels (exceeding 1200 mg/L), microbial indicators count (with total coliforms reaching up to 2.3 × 106 CFU/100 mL), and antibiotics (with concentrations of ciprofloxacin and tetracycline exceeding 4.6 µg/L) were detected. To mitigate antibiotic contamination, a Phyto-adsorption treatability study using magnetite nanoparticles prepared with Phragmites australis plant extract demonstrated promising results, achieving complete removal of high antibiotic concentrations with an adsorption capacity of up to 67 mg/g. This study provides updated insights into water quality in the Fayoum depression and proposes a novel approach for addressing antibiotic contamination, potentially safeguarding human and environmental health.

Groundwater quality analysis in Hail region of northwest Saudi Arabia based on physicochemical investigation

The acquired groundwater data from seventeen wells were hydrochemically analyzed for Sulfate, Chloride, Ammonia, Nitrate, Nitrite, pH, EC (Electrical Conductivity), TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), total hardness, and total alkalinity concentrations and then compared to the national and international standards. The results range as follows: pH (6.65–8.26), EC (382–1214 μS·cm−1), Total hardness (72–310 ppm), TDS (258–775 ppm), Total alkalinity (54–138 ppm), Cl- (19–202 ppm), Ammonia (NH3) (0.0 to 1.5 mg/liter), Nitrate (NO3) (4.7 to 65.6 ppm), Nitrite (NO2) (0.007 to 0.05 ppm), and sulfate (SO4) (29–278 ppm). About 70.58 % of the study area’s groundwater samples have TDS levels below 500 mg/l, which are considered safe for drinking. The EC of the groundwater found that 100 % of the samples fall within the allowed level. Based on these results, the groundwater quality is suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes in Hail region. Hence, this research shows that using GIS and chemical analysis of groundwater could be useful tools for the decision-making process of local and international authorities and water resources management.

Sustainability and water quality management in Chaltia Beel: Addressing ecological and public health challenges

This study evaluates the water quality of Chaltia Beel, a significant wetland in Murshidabad, West Bengal, India. Chaltia Beel serves as a crucial habitat for a variety of aquatic species and supports local communities through its use in agriculture and fisheries. The primary objective of this research is to assess the microbiological and chemical characteristics of the beel's water to determine its suitability for ecological and human use. Water samples were collected from three different sites within the beel during the post-monsoon season of 2023. The parameters analyzed include pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), nitrate (NO3), phosphate (PO4), ammoniacal nitrogen, total alkalinity, and total coliform bacteria. Standard methods prescribed by the American Public Health Association (APHA) and the Indian Standards Institution (ISI) were employed for the analyses. The results indicate that the pH values (7.74 to 7.77) are within the neutral range, which is favorable for most aquatic life. The temperature of the water (28.1°C to 28.2°C) is stable and conducive to the ecosystem. TDS levels (398 mg/l to 406 mg/l) are within acceptable limits, though continuous monitoring is recommended to detect any potential increases. Turbidity levels (1.1 NTU to 1.4 NTU) are low, indicating good water clarity. DO levels (6.3 mg/l to 6.6 mg/l) are adequate to support aerobic aquatic organisms. Nitrate levels were consistently below 0.5 mg/l, suggesting minimal agricultural runoff impact. However, phosphate levels (1.38 mg/l to 1.41 mg/l) are relatively high, indicating a risk of eutrophication. Ammoniacal nitrogen levels (0.56 mg/l to 0.61 mg/l) are within acceptable limits but need monitoring to prevent potential toxicity. Total alkalinity (277.4 mg/l to 285 mg/l) provides a good buffering capacity, maintaining pH stability. Microbiological analysis revealed significant contamination with total coliform bacteria ranging from 190 to 204 CFU/100ml, which highlights potential health risks if the water is used for drinking or recreational purposes. The study concludes that while some water quality parameters of Chaltia Beel are within acceptable limits, others require attention to prevent environmental and health issues. Regular monitoring, pollution control, public awareness, habitat restoration, and sustainable practices are recommended to improve and maintain the water quality of Chaltia Beel. These efforts are essential for preserving the ecological health of the wetland and ensuring its continued benefit to the local communities.

A risk assessment framework utilizing bivariate copula for contaminate monitoring in groundwater.

Regular groundwater quality monitoring in resource-constrained regions present formidable challenges in terms of funding, testing facilities and manpower; necessitating the development of easily implementable monitoring techniques. This study proposes a copula-based risk assessment model utilizing easily measurable indicators (e.g., turbidity, alkalinity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), conductivity), to monitor the contaminates in groundwater which are otherwise difficult to measure (i.e., iron, nitrate, sulfate, fluoride, etc.). Preliminary correlation between the indicators and the target contaminates were identified using Pearson coefficient. Best representative univariate distributions for these pairs were selected using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), which were used in the formulation of the copula model. Validation against observed data showcased the model's high accuracy, supported by consistent Kendall Tau correlation coefficients. Through this model, conditional probabilities of the contaminants not exceeding the permissible limits set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) were calculated using indicator concentration. Notably, an inverse correlation between iron concentration and conductivity was noted, with the likelihood of iron exceeding BIS limits decreasing from 90 to 50% as conductivity rose from 500 to 2000 micromhos/cm. TDS emerged as a pivotal indicator for nitrate and sulfate concentrations, with the probability of sulfate surpassing 10mg/l decreasing from 75 to 25% as TDS increased from 250 to 750mg/l. Likewise, the probability of nitrate exceeding 1mg/l decreased from 90 to 60% with TDS levels reaching 1500mg/l. Furthermore, a 63% probability of fluoride concentrations remaining below 1mg/l was observed at turbidity levels of 0-10 NTU. These findings hold significant implications for policymakers and researchers since the model can provide crucial insights into the risks associated with the contaminates exceeding the permissible limit, facilitating the development of an efficient monitoring and management strategies to ensure safe drinking water access for vulnerable populations.

Estimation of water quality in Korattur Lake, Chennai, India, using Bayesian optimization and machine learning

Assessing water quality becomes imperative to facilitate informed decision-making concerning the availability and accessibility of water resources in Korattur Lake, Chennai, India, which has been adversely affected by human actions. Although numerous state-of-the-art studies have made significant advancements in water quality classification, conventional methods for training machine learning model parameters still require substantial human and material resources. Hence, this study employs stochastic gradient descent (SGD), adaptive boosting (AdaBoosting), Perceptron, and artificial neural network algorithms to classify water quality categories as these well-established methods, combined with Bayesian optimization for hyperparameter tuning, provide a robust framework to demonstrate significant performance enhancements in water quality classification. The input features for model training from 2010 to 2019 comprise water parameters such as pH, phosphate, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, nitrate, iron, chlorides, sodium, and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Bayesian optimization is employed to dynamically tune the hyperparameters of different machine learning algorithms and select the optimal algorithms with the best performance. Comparing the performance of different algorithms, AdaBoosting exhibits the highest performance in water quality level classification, as indicated by its superior accuracy (100%), precision (100%), recall (100%), and F1 score (100%). The top four important factors for water quality level classification are COD (0.684), phosphate (0.119), iron (0.112), and TDS (0.084). Additionally, variations or changes in phosphate levels are likely to coincide with similar variations in TDS levels.

EVALUASI SISTEM DAN DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN PENGELOLAAN AIR TERPRODUKSI PADA SUMUR X1 PT MGBI LAPANGAN WUNUT

PT Minarak Gas Brantas Inc.'s operations in the Wunut Field involve the production of waste in various forms, primarily liquid waste, with produced water being the most significant type. Proper management of this produced water waste is crucial to prevent environmental pollution and ensure economic and environmental sustainability. The company manages this waste by reinjecting it into the reservoir to prevent groundwater contamination. To ensure the effectiveness of this reinjection process, they have created a groundwater flow pattern map (flow net) at three locations near the injection well: LP1 in Keduung Boto Village, LP2 in Candi Pari Village, and LP3 in Candi Pari Village, all in Sidoarjo Regency. This helps in understanding the potential spread of pollutants in the soil and underground water, aiding in environmental pollution monitoring and managment.The groundwater from this area is used for various human activities like bathing, cooking, and washing. However, based on water quality standards outlined in Ministry of Health Regulation No. 2 of 2023, the produced water from Well X-1 in the Wunut Field does not meet the required TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) content standards due to a decline in hydrocarbon fluid production, resulting in a separator efficiency of 74,86%. Additionally, lab tests and flow net results indicate that the TDS levels in LP1, LP2, and LP3 do not meet the sanitation and hygiene water quality standards, suggesting potential seepage in these locations that could contaminate groundwater. Keywords: Oil; Gas Produced Water; Gas Separator Eficiency; Groundwater Flow

Assessment of drinking water quality using Water Quality Index and synthetic pollution index in urban areas of mega city Lahore: a GIS-based approach

The aim of the present study was to assess the drinking water quality in the selected urban areas of Lahore and to comprehend the public health status by addressing the basic drinking water quality parameters. Total 50 tap water samples were collected from groundwater in the two selected areas of district Lahore i.e., Gulshan-e-Ravi (site 1) and Samanabad (site 2). Water samples were analyzed in the laboratory to elucidate physico-chemical parameters including pH, turbidity, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, magnesium hardness, and calcium hardness. These physico-chemical parameters were used to examine the Water Quality Index (WQI) and Synthetic Pollution Index (SPI) in order to characterize the water quality. Results of th selected physico-chemical parameters were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines to determine the quality of drinking water. A GIS-based approach was used for mapping water quality, WQI, and SPI. Results of the present study revealed that the average value of temperature, pH, and DO of both study sites were within the WHO guidelines of 23.5 °C, 7.7, and 6.9 mg/L, respectively. The TDS level of site 1 was 192.56 mg/L (within WHO guidelines) and whereas, in site 2 it was found 612.84 mg/L (higher than WHO guidelines), respectively. Calcium hardness of site 1 and site 2 was observed within the range from 25.04 to 65.732 mg/L but, magnesium hardness values were higher than WHO guidelines. The major reason for poor water quality is old, worn-out water supply pipelines and improper waste disposal in the selected areas. The average WQI was found as 59.66 for site 1 and 77.30 for site 2. Results showed that the quality of the water was classified as “poor” for site 1 and “very poor “ for site 2. There is a need to address the problem of poor water quality and also raise the public awareness about the quality of drinking water and its associated health impacts.

Microcrustacean community structure is shaped by seasonality in a Brazilian semiarid reservoir

ABSTRACT Reservoirs are ecologically important ecosystems. In the Brazilian semiarid region, these ecosystems are impacted by environmental changes resulting from the rainfall regime. Furthermore, the reservoirs boast a rich planktonic biodiversity, which is directly influenced by the ecological dynamics of each reservoir. Our aim was to analyse the impact of rapid changes between the dry and rainy seasons on the limnological variables in a Brazilian semiarid reservoir. Furthermore, we analysed the impact of this phenomenon on the microcrustacean community in the reservoir. We observed that the reservoir is significantly impacted by the region’s rainfall regime. During the rainy season, the reservoir volume increases, resulting in higher pH and dissolved oxygen levels, and lower water temperature, electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids levels. The transition from the dry to the rainy season influenced the microcrustacean community. Our findings indicate that the transition from the dry to the rainy seasons in Brazilian semiarid region results in limnological changes in the reservoirs of this region. Furthermore, these changes also result in alterations to the microcrustacean community structure in these reservoirs.

Groundwater Hardness and Alkalinity As Risk Factors for Kidney Stone Disease in Alwar, India: An Ecological Study.

Rajasthan is a semi-arid state in India where people still use groundwater for drinking purposes. However, the quality of groundwater as compared to standards have not been studied in any details. This ecological study was done to study the groundwater quality parameters in the stone-belt states, compare the quality of groundwater in Alwar with the rest of Rajasthan, and study the morbidity profile of surgical in-patients in the same district, with special emphasis on kidney stone disease (KSDs). The morbidity profile of patients coming to the surgery department of a tertiary teaching hospital between January 2002 and June 2023 was obtained from the medical records department, and water quality data was obtained from the publicly available Water Resources Information System (WRIS) groundwater dataset for the year 2023. The dataset provided detailed information on the chemical parameters of water samples throughout the country that were evaluated to estimate the quality of groundwater. It was found that the groundwater in Alwar is non-potable due to the presence of iron, alkalinity, magnesium, and total dissolved solids (TDS). Iron was estimated to be much higher than the acceptable limit of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) drinking-water quality guidelines (0.3 mg/L). Similarly, most of the chemical parameters in the groundwaters of Rajasthan significantly exceeded the national average. The median electrical conductivity, fluoride, magnesium, sodium, hardness, alkalinity, and turbidity were found to be 1680 μS/cm, 1.05 parts per million (PPM), 41 PPM, 233 PPM, 330 PPM, 310 PPM, 988 PPM, respectively, which are above the WHO recommendations for drinking water guidelines. The levels of iron and total alkalinity were significantly higher in the study district as compared to the rest of the state. Also, magnesium hardness and TDS levels were very high in the groundwater of the entire state of Rajasthan, making the population vulnerable to KSDs in the long run.

Innovative Solutions for Melaka's River Water Treatment

Melaka's rivers, essential for agriculture, drinking water, and transportation, face growing pollution challenges due to urbanization and industry, threatening their ecological balance. This study delved into the assessment of river water quality in Melaka and the design of a practical water treatment device tailored for river water purification. Extensive testing, involving Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and pH analysis, shed light on the existing poor state of the Melaka River water. The devised water treatment device, encompassing diverse filter materials and a submersible pump, yielded noteworthy outcomes. Notably, experiment 4, employing activated carbon and cotton wool for both inlet and outlet, demonstrated the highest efficacy, reducing TDS levels by a remarkable 44.21%, surpassing other trials. The employed materials exhibited the potential to neutralize pH levels and clarify river water, with cotton wool effectively trapping residues and impurities.

Preliminary assessment of <i>Moringa oleifera</i> seed as a flocculation agent for purification of drinking water

Sachet and borehole water are the major sources of drinking water for many in Nigeria. However, there are still concerns about drinking water purity in Nigeria. This study was conducted to determine the parasites associated with sachet and borehole drinking water and to determine the efficacy of Moringa oleifera seed in the flocculation treatment of sachet and borehole water. A total of 75 sachet water from 15 brands, and 10 different borehole water samples were collected from the study area. Moringa seed was processed and maceration was done to extract the active ingredients. Of the 75 sachet water samples from 15 brands examined, none had any parasites. However, all the brands contained varying degrees of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). Brand N had the highest (147.1mg/L), while Brand G had the least (4.62mg/L). After treatment, the TDS values of all the water samples were reduced by more than 50% in each of the brands. There was no significant association in the particle load among the sachet water brands (P>0.05, P=0.141). All 10 borehole water samples examined also contained varying degrees of TDS. The highest level of TDS in the study (635.4mg/L) and Ova of Ascaris lumbricoides was observed in sample E. After treatment, the TDS values of all the water samples were reduced. Also, ova of A. lumbricoides was no longer observed in the sample E. In this study, M. oleifera seed has demonstrated a high level of efficacy as a flocculation agent for the purification of drinking water. Therefore, we recommend further studies to determine how the seed could be used safely as a household and industrial water flocculant.

Enhancing wheat productivity utilizing nano- and bio-fertilizers in water-scarce Sinai, Egypt, under different irrigation systems

ABSTRACT This study investigates the impact of different fertilizers under varying irrigation systems and crop water requirements in water-scarce Sinai, Egypt. Field experiments were conducted during the agricultural winter seasons of 2021 and 2022 to study the response of wheat growth, yield, and water productivity under drip and furrow irrigation. The results showed that under drip irrigation system, pH showed no clear trend, while total dissolved solids (TDS) decreased with depth and were reduced by bio-fertilizer and the combination treatment. On the other hand, under furrow irrigation system, maintained a slightly alkaline pH with minimal fertilizer influence. TDS levels significantly varied, and the effects of fertilizers differed. Calcium carbonate content and organic matter varied with fertilizer types and depths. Increasing the crop water requirement from 80% to 100% improved plant growth and yield, with the 80% treatment demonstrating higher water productivity. Furrow irrigation resulted in higher growth and yields, while drip irrigation exhibited greater water productivity. Nano-fertilizer treatments consistently outperformed bio-fertilizer in growth, yields, and water productivity. Specific combinations showed superior performance due to interactions between factors. Suitable irrigation methods and regimes enhance water use efficiency. Higher irrigation levels enhance wheat growth and yield, requiring careful water management to avoid stress. Drip irrigation demonstrates superior water productivity. Reducing the water input to 80% of crop water requirements improves efficiency without compromising yield. Nano-fertilizers promote growth and grain retention as an alternative to soluble fertilizers. Combining nano with bio-fertilizers further enhances wheat growth, yield, and water productivity. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing wheat production in water-scarce regions, considering irrigation methods, crop water requirements, and nitrogen fertilization sources.

Morphogenesis of Hollow Bulbous Gypsum Structures Along a Brine Spring in Northeast Alberta

Abstract The stromatolite tufa mound at La Saline Lake developed along the Athabasca River Valley in northeast Alberta consists of a 30 m-high structure with a multi-meter thick caprock of stratified gypsum. The gypsum caprock developed when the meteoric-charged groundwater channeled along shallowly buried Upper Devonian limestone was redirected deeper and encountered anhydrite beds of the Middle Devonian Prairie Evaporite Formation, only 175–200 m below. Discharge of the sulfate-saturated brine from the central vent of the gypsum caprock eventually ceased and the flow was redirected to the western lakefront bank of the tufa mound. This active brine spring, characterized by total dissolved solids level of ∼79,000 mg/L, is channeled along a 25 m gully toward La Saline Lake. The bottom sediment in each of the interconnected brine pools along the gully consists of a 2–4 cm-thick calcite-gypsum thrombolite and an overlying gypsum crust. This sulfate crust developed as densely packed arrays of hollow botryoidal to hemispheroidal and bulbous gypsum protuberances, each 0.5–1.5 cm long, that extend upward into the brine. This is the first documented example of bulbous protuberances of gypsum that developed within brine pools with hollow interiors. The unusual hollowness of these bulbous gypsum protuberances resulted from the rapid encasement of gas bubbles that ascended from the underlying thrombolite ooze and were trapped within the overlying microbial mats and meshwork of gypsum crystallites on the surface of the bottom pool sediment. Nanoscale biomineralization of gypsum developed along the parallel arrays of microbial stalks within the enveloping mat, resulting in a meshwork of parallel aligned crystallites that encased the surfaces of the trapped bubbles. Continued abiotic gypsum precipitation transitioned the abiotic crystallites into enlarged needle-form crystallites distributed as parallel arrays along curvilinear growth surface laminae. Sufficient rigidity on the bubble surfaces precluded implosion-collapse or detachment. Strontium adsorption widely stabilized the acicular crystals, inhibiting complete coalescence as gypsum spar.

Spatial Variability of Selected Soil Chemical Parameters in Low-yielding Paddy Production Block in Mahaweli System H, Sri Lanka

Although water availability for paddy production in Mahaweli System H is abundant, paddy yield is lower in Nochchiyagama (278 km2), chosen for soil assessment. Paddy yield data were used to identify the low-yielding division using the area-weighted average. Twenty-five random locations were generated, and soil samples were collected for pH, soil conductivity (EC), salinity, and total dissolved solids (TDS) analysis. ArcGIS software was used to create spatial distribution maps and related geostatistical analyses for each parameter. Vector files were created with their associated properties, and thematic maps were generated using spatial interpolation techniques, such as universal kriging (UK), ordinary kriging (OK), and inverse distance weighted (IDW) methods of interpolation techniques to identify the best interpolation method for soil chemical parameters mapping. The entire Nochchiyagama land was observed to have a slightly acidic pH (5.6-5.9) range that may have affected rice crop growth due to nutrient mobility and uptake issues. The spatial interpolation evaluation suggests that at least two-thirds of the area observed for lower TDS levels (591-654 mg/L) is potentially unsafe paddy production. Elevated levels of EC (3.1-7.24 dS/m) along with TDS may lead to physiological drought due to interferences in ion uptake. In overall, spatial interpolation evaluation indicators suggest that the UK method was observed with a lower mean relative error (MRE) than the other two interpolations. However, EC distribution showed low MRE in both IDW and OK interpolation techniques. The IDW method was observed to have a lower RMSE (Root mean square error). The UK spatial interpolation performed better for TDS and salinity predictions than other methods. This study found consistent regional differences in low paddy yields in Mahaweli system H using the UK method for analyzing soil chemical parameters. 
 Keywords: Electrical conductivity, Interpolation errors, Salinity, Spatial interpolation

Effect of water quality on causes of calf mortality in cattle-farm-associated epidemics

Abstract. Poor-quality drinking water plays a detrimental role in the suppression of calf immunity, giving rise to an increased rate of calf mortality. The present study aims to evaluate the causes of calf mortality in beef and dairy farms in relation to drinking water quality (DWQ). A convenience sample of 132 Egyptian cattle farms suffering from emerging epidemics was surveyed by collecting drinking water samples for physicochemical and microbial analysis and using a questionnaire to record hygienic risk factors affecting calf health. Statistical analysis correlates water parameters with rates of calf diarrhea, respiratory problems, severe depression, sudden death and mortality. High percentages of water sample quality parameters, e.g. pH, total dissolved solids (TDSs), hardness, chloride, nitrate, sulfate, total colony count (TCC) and total coliform count (TCFC), are above permissible limits. Water parameters, except pH, show a significant moderate positive correlation with causes of calf mortality (ρ 0.331–0.66) in winter and summer. Each cause of calf mortality was predicted by a specific water parameter, and the water nitrate level was the highest predictor, with the highest values (β = 0.504–0.577), followed by the water TDS, sulfate and microbial levels. Weak to moderate correlation (ρ 0.151–0.367) was found between calf mortality causes and some hygienic risk factors such as operation type, calf housing, calf feeders, bedding type, water source, water pipe type, drinker lining and wheel dipping. We could conclude that DWQ greatly affects causes of calf mortality, but we cannot exclude some farm hygienic risk factors.