Archaeological Tools Research Articles

Combining experiment and ethnoarchaeology to differentiate the surface conditions of animal hides

There is a wide range of technical processes involved in working animal skins, depending on the environment, the size of the skins and the purpose of the work (clothing, tent covers, etc.). The archaeological tools and their shape, weight, and use-wear are often the only evidence of these technical processes. Their understanding requires an experimental approach combined with ethnoarchaeological data to establish protocols allowing processes compatible with the type of skin to be treated and carry out the correct gestures at each stage of the process. This study, dedicated to the processing of very large hides, presents the experimental replication of the production process of moose hides observed in Canada (B.C.) in an Athaspakan group. The functional analysis of the experimental tools allows identifying different wear patterns corresponding to different surface conditions of animal hides; each of them having particular implications for the interpretation of the archaeological record.

Mining, farming, and diplomacy. Understanding the human landscape of Bronze Age Sardinia (Italy) through geospatial analysis

Human agency on landscape modification and land use is often seen in terms of socio-economic opportunities vs. natural constraints. In the study of prehistoric cultures this is both a strong source of information about sustenance strategies and community behaviours, and a subject potentially easy to analyse within a limited set of physical and social parameters. The recent advancements in the use of spatial analysis tools in landscape archaeology allow to obtain ever more precise models. However, studies that compare at the same time the geological landscape and social elements are very scarce. We used Point Pattern Analysis and Modelling to investigate megalithic structures (nuraghes) in Bronze Age southwestern Sardinia (Italy) and identify correlations between their spatial patterns and a set of covariates encompassing both environmental (i.e. topography and geological resources) and cultural factors. The models which best represent pattern distribution come from the combination of covariates from both groups.The models highlight a close distance from known ore deposits and show a clear dependence of Nuragic populations to ore extraction and metallurgy. The availability of fertile soils with moderate permeability and moderately low pH is also significant, as well as a preference to prominent locations with a positive correlation with the Topographic Position Index and the Convexity Index. From a cultural standpoint, we observed a consistent aggregation of simple nuraghes around complex nuraghes at mid-short distances. The occurrence of polycentric patterns can be explained either by the former emerging from the presence of the latter or vice versa, and is typically associated with a loosely stratified social structure devoid of strong hierarchies. These results underscore the efficacy of spatial analysis in disentangling and juxtaposing the physical and social factors influencing the distribution of past culture, and offer new insight on the development of Bronze Age societies in their geographical context.

Archaeo-media: breaking the binary and building agency in archaeological news reporting

ABSTRACT The role of news media in the dissemination of archaeological research is beginning to receive some attention, but this is inadequate when considering the scale of the news media as a tool for public archaeology and mass-distribution of archaeological research in digital news sites. Archaeology needs to urgently address this oversight and begin to construct appropriate and sustainable working relationships with the news media, founded on a critical evaluation of current strategies, to regulate the information that is disseminated through this medium. This paper takes a British perspective, though the themes and necessary improvements have global significance. I suggest that we begin to appreciate the role of the archaeologist in the construction of knowledge through the mass media by embracing ‘archaeo-media’- a neologism here proposed to explore the intersections and interactions between archaeology and news media.

Application of handheld/portable spectroscopic tools to the identification, inner stratigraphy and mapping of archaeological metal artefacts

Field handheld/portable instrumentations, such as in-situ geochemical analyzers, have the potential to assist efficiently targeted geochemical archaeometry campaigns in detecting and quantifying specific elements. Non-destructive portable energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence and micro-destructive handheld laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) instrumentation were utilized to investigate the elemental composition, internal stratigraphy by depth profiling and microscale compositional mapping of five copper and two iron alloy artefacts collected from various ancient graves in the Minervino Murge area, Apulia, Italy. The primary elements identified by both techniques included Cu, Sn and Pb in copper alloys, and Fe with minor amounts of Cu and Pb in iron alloys. Furthermore, the elements Al, Ca, Si, Mg, Na and K, mostly originated from soil contamination, and the trace elements Sb, Ni and Zn were detected. The satisfactory performance of both techniques was assessed by their capacity to provide reproducible elemental composition data. Finally, the depth profile and mapping achieved by LIBS contributed to understanding the metal processing and history of the objects studied, so confirming both techniques to be robust analytical tools in outdoor archaeology and archaeometry campaigns.

Dibble’s Reduction Thesis: Implications for Global Lithic Analysis

Harold Dibble demonstrated the systematic effects of reduction by retouch upon the size and shape of Middle Paleolithic tools. The result was the reduction thesis, with its far-reaching implications for the understanding of Middle Paleolithic assemblage variation that even now are incompletely assimilated. But Dibble’s influence extended beyond the European Paleolithic. Others identified additional reduction methods and measures that complement Dibble’s reduction thesis, and applied analytical concepts and methods consistent with it to industries and assemblages around the world. These developments facilitated comprehensive reduction analysis of archaeological tools and assemblages and their comparison in the abstract despite the great diversity of their time–space contexts. Dibble argued that many assemblages are time-averaged accumulations. In cases from New Zealand to North America, methods he pioneered and that others extended reveal the complex processes by which behavior, tool use, curation, and time interacted to yield those accumulations. We are coming to understand that the record is no mere collection of ethnographic vignettes, instead a body of data that requires macroarchaeological approaches. Archaeology’s pending conceptual revolution in part is a legacy of Dibble’s thought.

Archaeology of Repression in Latin America

This study was undertaken during the October Revolt, a period of demonstrations, discontent with the government and confrontations between protesters and the police (Carabineros de Chile) and armed forces. We used archaeological tools to shed light on clashes between the police forces demonstrators, and on the ways this conflict took shape. Our analysis refers to locations that we call Sites of Demonstration and Protest (SDP) and Nuclei of Repression and Self-Defense (NRS).

Drone photogrammetry as a tool for modern conflict archaeology: a case study of a Second World War armament bunker in Bavaria

ABSTRACT Within this paper, a case study on the application of drone photogrammetry at the Second World War armament bunker Weingut I is presented. The aim of the project was the mapping of the preserved remains in advance to the installation of a memorial site. In particular, the preserved concrete arch and one of the ventilation shafts were mapped by this method in high quality. Therefore, even small details of the building structure as well as several damage spots needing remediation became visible. One important advantage of drone prospecting is an enhanced occupational safety and a cost and time reduction as no further manual resources are necessary. In areas without finalized clearing for Unexploded Ordnance, other manual survey method would be especially dangerous. By comparing the photogrammetric model of the bunker Weingut I with corresponding ALS Digital Surface Models (DSM) of varying resolution, the increase in information is shown.

An ethical framework for geophysical survey in historic Black cemeteries

AbstractHistoric Black cemeteries in the south‐eastern United States are actively threatened by development, neglect, environmental degradation and vandalism. Geophysical archaeological tools are often championed as a solution to document unmarked graves, determine cemetery boundaries and help preserve these spaces. This process can be problematic as geophysical instruments themselves do not find graves; rather, the data collected are reviewed by a skilled professional to interpret where graves might be present. Archaeological geophysical practitioners thus hold a great responsibility to conduct themselves in an ethical manner. Important considerations include archaeological ethics, professionalism and honest communication, as well as centring the needs of preservation within the communities of descendants and stakeholders, if possible, in the way we process, interpret and communicate results.

Tools for the metal processing of the Alakul population of the forest-steppe Tobol River basin

The paper presents the results of the study of a tool complex associated with metalworking from the sites of the Alakul Culture of the forest-steppe Tobol River basin — the settlements of Kamyshnoe 1 and 2, Uk 3, Nizhneingalskoe 3, and Zolotoe 1. The Alakul antiquities, in general, date to 1900–1450 BC. The purpose of this work is the consolidation and clarification of information on the metalworking of the Alakul population of the forest-steppe Tobol basin. For this purpose, collections of trade tools of the aforementioned Alakul settlements were revisited; the tools used in the production in question were identified; the signs of their wear, documented by a series of microphotographs, were characterised; and groups of the tools were identified according to their functional feature. The main research method was experimental-traceological. It implies, firstly, the study of traces of wear, their mutual occurrence and specifics of the location on the tools; secondly, the comparison of the obtained characteristics with experimental data. In the work, theoretical and experiential concepts of the methodology and classification schemes developed by S.A. Semenov, G.F. Korobkova, and V.V. Kileynikov were employed. To verify the traces of wear on archaeological tools, experimental reference samples of the tools were used, obtained during many years of work and stored in the Tyumen Scientific Centre SB RAS. As analogies, published results of the experiments and experimental and traceological studies of similar tools from territorially close Bronze Age sites were used. As the result, forging tools (hammers for cold and hot forging of castings, smoothers) and abrasive tools were identified; their technological characteristics and distinctive signs of wear marks were clari-fied. A set of tools in one quantity or another was recorded at each of the studied sites; therefore, the blacksmith production was quite developed also on the periphery of the Alakul Culture. Additional arguments were obtained in favour of the hypothesis that the ore processing was taking place in the immediate vicinity of its sources, and the metal could have been supplied to the re-mote villages already in a ‘finished’ form; there, the products were cast, forged, and finished. Analogies to the studied tools are known from the earlier Petrovka and Sintashta complexes of the Southern Trans-Urals. Thus, we can talk about common patterns in the manufacture and use of metalworking tools during the Bronze Age in the Trans-Urals territory.

A new and ‘riveting’ method: Micro-CT scanning for the documentation, conservation, and reconstruction of the Gjellestad ship

The cultural heritage sector has increasingly explored the use of micro-CT (µCT) across numerous projects seeking to better understand past cultures and the materials they have left behind. As such, the role of micro-CT (µCT) is still being developed and projects continue to show novel ways that the technology can be adapted to. The Gjellestad ship, located in Halden (Østfold in Viken), Norway, is dated to the Viking Age and was found in a poor state of preservation. Both organic and metallic materials were deteriorated to the degree that standard excavation methods would have resulted in further damage to, or even the destruction of, these elements. A new approach was needed, and this presented an opportunity to explore the use for µCT as a documentative tool for field archaeology and conservation. As the remaining rivets were too fragile to handle directly, they were removed together with the surrounding matrix as soil blocks. To retain important stratigraphic and position information, a georeferencing system was developed that would be visible to µCT and included within each soil block. This enabled the spatial (re)positioning of the soil blocks by use of 3D GIS and in alongside with other spatial documentation gathered at the time of excavation. The quantity of soil blocks will give us a large dataset to work with and, although we continue to document the soil blocks with µCT, we now can discuss our preliminary results pertaining to the positive impact that µCT has for the documentation, conservation, and reconstruction of cultural heritage.

Viruses as archaeological tools for uncovering ancient molecular relationships.

The entry of a virus into the host cell always implies the alteration of certain intracellular molecular relationships, some of which may involve the recovery of ancient cellular activities. In this sense, viruses are archaeological tools for identifying unexpressed activities in noninfected cells. Among these, activities that hinder virus propagation may represent cellular defense mechanisms, for example, activities that mutagenize the viral genome such as ADAR-1 or APOBEC activities. Instead, those that facilitate virus propagation can be interpreted as the result of viral adaptation to-or mimicking-cellular structures, enabling the virus to perform anthropomorphic activities, including hijacking, manipulating, and reorganizing cellular factors for their own benefit. The alternative we consider here is that some of these second set of cellular activities were already in the uninfected cell but silenced, under the negative control of the cell or lineage, and that they represent a necessary precondition for viral infection. For example, specifically loading an amino acid at the 3'-end of the mRNA of some plant viruses by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases has proved essential for virus infection despite this reaction not occurring with cellular mRNAs. Other activities of this type are discussed here, together with the biological context in which they acquire a coherent meaning, that is, genetic latency and molecular conflict.

Bioarchaeology of ancient Adriatic ships: The Pula shipwrecks (Croatia)

Bioarchaeological analyses of protective coatings and waterproofing materials used in the construction or restoration of ships have helped to enhance our understanding of their geographical origins by identifying the pollen-derived assemblages preserved during their building or restoration. We selected two Roman sewn ships (Pula 1 and 2), two artefacts (a brush and a fragment of fibrous mass) and three plank fragments with “mortise and tenon” joints not belonging to the sewn boats to extract bioindicators from pitch, a substance traditionally used in Mediterranean shipbuilding to waterproof the seams and hull and protect the wood of the vessels. The remains were unearthed during the archaeological excavations of the ancient silted harbour of the Roman colony of Pula in 2013. The wrecks attest to ancient regional traditions in shipbuilding specific to the North-Eastern Adriatic area. Using pollen-derived vegetation patterns and statistical analyses, we suggest that the recorded vegetation mainly corresponds to the past and present Eastern Adriatic landscapes, where pitch could have been produced or applied. The landscapes identified correspond to the area where the wrecks were discovered. Pollen also elucidate the application of the pitch, separating phases of construction from stages of ships repair. Pollen, as well as statistical analyses, are powerful tools for naval archaeology, providing geographical insights into the history of wrecks as well as an assessment of construction or restoration phases.

Predictive spatial analysis for a critical assessment of the preservation potential of Palaeolithic record in the Leiria region (central Portugal)

Predictive spatial analysis in archaeology refers to the use of geostatistical and computational techniques to assess the relationships between the distribution of archaeological sites and the environmental context. It is increasingly becoming an essential tool in scientific-academic research and rescue archaeology. In the interconnection between these two working contexts, this study aims to explore the advantages of applying an inductive approach, combining Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and geostatistical methods, to identify areas with different degrees of probability for the preservation of the Palaeolithic record in the lower valley of the Lis River (Leiria region, central Portugal). Topographic, hydrographic, geological, and geomorphological data were collected, processed, and integrated into a spatial database, using a GIS, to define the environmental conditioning factors. After applying a spatial multicollinearity procedure, slope, topographical position index, cost-weighted distance to access the watercourses, heat load index and lithology were chosen as input variables for the predictive modelling. Archaeological data, corresponding to the location of known Palaeolithic sites, were also retrieved from the official records. Three models were implemented using regression and multi-criteria methods; for Model 1 a Generalised Additive Model (GAM) was applied, while for Model 2 and Model 3 two distinct combinations of Probabilistic Frequency Ratio (PFR) and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) were used. The spatial cross-tabulation between the obtained predictive maps and the location of the known Palaeolithic sites shows that all the models are acceptable. However, the combinations of PFR + AHP seem to evidence greater efficacy compared to the GAM. Model 3 offers the best performance (90%), followed by Model 2 (87%) and Model 1 (68%). Possible sources of inaccuracies in the input data and the spatial modelling results were critically discussed. Model 3 generated the most robust and reliable predictive prototype map. The maps produced can serve local and regional agencies as a complement and aid decision-making in public policies for spatial planning, and in the conservation/management of cultural heritage. These cartographic representations can provide quicker identification of areas of interest, for example, in the context of rescue archaeology, along with a substantial reduction in time and costs for project promoters, as well as helping in the environmental impact assessments.

Sentinel-2 imagery analyses for archaeological site detection: an application to Late Bronze Age settlements in Serbian Banat, southern Carpathian Basin

Satellite remote sensing has become a valuable tool in archaeology, allowing the monitoring of existing and discovery of new sites, and to study their surroundings. In an attempt to identify unknown Late Bronze Age (LBA) archaeological sites in the Serbian Banat region (southern Carpathian Basin), remote sensing techniques for site detection were applied using Sentinel-2 data. A multi-temporal analysis was performed, and the spectral signatures of soil marks from five known LBA settlements were analysed to determine the best conditions for the identification of archaeological features. Several principal component analyses (PCA), band combinations and vegetation indices were calculated. The vegetation indices results from soil marks at known sites demonstrated the impact of settlement characteristics (compositions, subsurface anomalies) on vegetation growth. Applying this further to identify new sites from the satellite data, one hundred and two possible archaeological locations, ranging from only a few hectares to 100 ha, were identified in Banat and Bačka, to the east and west of the Tisza River. Of the sixty-one possible sites identified in Banat, a sample was visited and their chronology confirmed, proving once again the enormous capabilities of Sentinel-2 data analyses for site detection.

BRIDGING THE GAP: AN OPEN-SOURCE GIS+BIM SYSTEM FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA. THE CASE STUDY OF ALTINUM, ITALY

Abstract. GIS tools in archaeology have become fundamental for professionals and researchers around the world. In recent years, the “3D revolution” has drastically changed archaeological practices and methods, including the use of GIS. This paper presents the results of a project aimed at building an integrated system for the management and study of archaeological data in 2D and 3D, connecting GIS to BIM. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an innovative technology developed for architectural design and planning, and later adapted for cultural heritage and historic buildings (HBIM). More recently, it has been tested on archaeological sites. Some attempts have been made to connect landscape scale GIS projects with BIM models of individual buildings. However, these have not been applied specifically to archaeology thus far. Through the use of open-source software, a seamless workflow from data collection in GIS to 3D visualization and modeling in a native OpenBIM environment has been created. The paper illustrates this methodology with a case study about Altinum, a Roman city in northeastern Italy near Venice. The GIS component of the project manages the archaeological map of the city, while the OpenBIM application allows the virtual reconstruction of the sites. For the latter, the case of the ancient city-gate of Altinum is considered and explained.

Supervised learning algorithms as a tool for archaeology: Classification of ceramic samples described by chemical element concentrations

Ceramic provenance studies often use minor and trace elements to gather knowledge about the presence of local furnaces and commercial trades. There are various chemical techniques that can be used to determine the elemental composition of ceramics, either non-destructively or by requiring samples. From these data, researchers can often determine provenance, and then use multivariate analyses with geological and archaeological information to classify the ceramics. In this study, we aimed to demonstrate the potential of supervised Machine Learning techniques to classify ceramic samples based on their chemical element concentrations. We applied several supervised learning algorithms to a set of 36 fragments whose archaeological classification was already known, using chemical analysis data that had been verified through previous studies. We carried out different sets of experiments, exploiting in different ways the available data, and evaluated the performance of the adopted algorithms, to propose new tools for ceramics provenance studies in archaeology. Our results show that machine learning can be a reliable and useful tool for archaeological classification based on chemical analysis data, providing a reliable and schematic picture of archaeological findings.

Application of GPR Prospection to Unveil Historical Stratification inside Monumental Buildings: The Case of San Leonardo de Siete Fuentes in Santu Lussurgiu, Sardinia, Italy

Stratigraphy is a fundamental classification tool for archaeology on which modern excavation techniques are based, and essentially consists of a sedimentological, pedological and archaeological interpretation of the multiple cultural layers found while digging; this concept can be adopted when studying monumental buildings and, in particular, their hidden parts or elements. The precious and delicate surfaces of monuments need non-invasive techniques such as geophysical methods and in the present article, the use of GPR technique has been exploited through a dataset collected over the nave of the church of San Leonardo de Siete Fuentes in Sardinia. First, the georadar results have been jointly analyzed by means of the B- and C-scans, in which some most significant patterns were detected and analyzed by looking at their signal features over the investigated volume. Following the analysis, elements from the signal attribute analysis and horizon detection and visualization, with a 3D approach, were used. To strengthen the reliability of the GPR results, a thermal infrared survey was simultaneously carried out. Thanks to the integrated geophysical and historical analysis of the monument, the ancient layout of the church has been reconstructed and other targets of potential archaeological interest identified

TikTok as a Learning Tool for Archaeology

OverviewSince its launch, TikTok has become one of the world's most popular social media apps. Once primarily used by teenagers, this app is now used by people of all ages; this shift is largely attributable to the COVID-19 pandemic, when many people transitioned to engaging with others via social media instead of having in-person interactions. Now, anyone who has either the app or access to a web browser can view a plethora of videos, all 10 minutes and under, on any topic. Informational videos about archaeology may not be promoted on everyone's personalized home page—called the For You page (FYP)—but they are easily accessible through the search function. This review will discuss the impact TikTok has on the world of archaeology, with a focus on public engagement, museums, and especially teaching and learning. The social power of this app needs to be acknowledged. Archaeology can introduce the public to snapshots of daily life from the past, a task that fits well with the design of TikTok. This social platform can become a resource to create spaces to learn more, especially through interactive conversations such as in the comments section or response videos.

INTEGRATING GIS AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORDING FOR EXTENDED SEABED ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH, MARSA BAGOUSH, EGYPT

Abstract. Photogrammetry and GIS technologies are developing rapidly and becoming more affordable. They have also emerged as significant archaeological tools as a result of an increasing level of automated workflow in data acquisition and processing. Moreover, these techniques offer considerable reduction in the cost of underwater archaeological research. That is in addition to significant enhancement in research plans, management, and results, especially in extended seabed archaeological projects. Therefore, these technologies are utilized as essential aspects of the underwater archaeological research project in the site of Marsa Bagoush, Egypt. The site is located 250 km west of Alexandria, and it takes the form of a bay, almost 650,000 m2. Marsa Bagoush (ancient Zygris) was mentioned by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the 2nd century AD as one of the main anchorages along the northwest coast of Egypt between Alexandria and Marsa Matrouh (ancient Paraetonium).This paper presents the results of the on-going digital documentation of the site which is a major part of an underwater archaeological investigation project. The paper will discuss the promising application of photogrammetry in underwater archaeology. It will also look at the integration of GIS Database techniques, which represent accurate methods of documenting topographical and archaeological elements and obtaining three-dimensional digital models of the site and its contents.

SPIN enables high throughput species identification of archaeological bone by proteomics.

Species determination based on genetic evidence is an indispensable tool in archaeology, forensics, ecology, and food authentication. Most available analytical approaches involve compromises with regard to the number of detectable species, high cost due to low throughput, or a labor-intensive manual process. Here, we introduce “Species by Proteome INvestigation” (SPIN), a shotgun proteomics workflow for analyzing archaeological bone capable of querying over 150 mammalian species by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Rapid peptide chromatography and data-independent acquisition (DIA) with throughput of 200 samples per day reduce expensive MS time, whereas streamlined sample preparation and automated data interpretation save labor costs. We confirm the successful classification of known reference bones, including domestic species and great apes, beyond the taxonomic resolution of the conventional peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF)-based Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) method. In a blinded study of degraded Iron-Age material from Scandinavia, SPIN produces reproducible results between replicates, which are consistent with morphological analysis. Finally, we demonstrate the high throughput capabilities of the method in a high-degradation context by analyzing more than two hundred Middle and Upper Palaeolithic bones from Southern European sites with late Neanderthal occupation. While this initial study is focused on modern and archaeological mammalian bone, SPIN will be open and expandable to other biological tissues and taxa.