Neuromodulation Tool Research Articles

The effect of tDCS applied to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on cycling performance and the modulation of exercise induced pain

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulatory tool purported to enhance endurance performance through reducing fatigue related perceptions, including exercise-induced pain (EIP). We examined whether tDCS of the left DLPFC (1) can reduce EIP during a fixed intensity cycling trial (FI), (2) can improve cycling time trial (TT) performance, and (3) whether this was affected by a bilateral or an extracephalic montage. This investigation was comprised of two parts (study one and two). In both studies, participants completed a 10-minute FI trial and a 15-minute TT after 10 min of 2 mA anodal left DLPFC tDCS, SHAM or no stimulation. In study one, 11 participants received tDCS via a bilateral montage. In study two, 20 participants received tDCS using an extracephalic montage. Pain was recorded throughout the FI and TT trials, with power output (PO) monitored during the TT. Study one saw no significant changes in pain (tDCS 4.3 ± 2.0; SHAM 4.0 ± 1.8; control 3.8 ± 1.4) during the FI trial and no significant differences in distance covered, pain or PO in the TT. In study two there were no differences in pain reported in the FI trial, or distance covered (P = 0.239), pain or PO in the TT. In summary, tDCS of the DLPFC did not induce analgesia and provided no ergogenic effect for TT performance, moreover these observations were consistent across both the extracephalic and bilateral montage. These findings are in line with an increasing number of studies demonstrating the inconsistent effects of tDCS.

Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound ameliorates depression-like behaviors in a rat model of chronic unpredictable stress.

IntroductionThere is an unmet need for better nonpharmaceutical treatments for depression. Low‐intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) is a novel type of neuromodulation that could be helpful for depressed patients.ObjectiveThe goal of this study was to investigate the feasibility and potential mechanisms of LIPUS in the treatment of depression.MethodsChronic unpredictable stress (CUS) was used to generate rats with depression‐like features that were treated with four weeks of LIPUS stimulation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Depression‐like behaviors were assessed with the sucrose preference, forced swim, and open field tests. BDNF/mTORC1 signaling was examined by Western blot to investigate this potential molecular mechanism. The safety of LIPUS was evaluated using hematoxylin‐eosin and Nissl staining.ResultsFour weeks of LIPUS stimulation significantly increased sucrose preference and reduced forced swim immobility time in CUS rats. LIPUS also partially reversed the molecular effects of CUS that included decreased levels of BDNF, phosphorylated tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB), extracellular signal‐regulated kinase (ERK), mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), and S6 kinase (S6K). Moreover, histological staining revealed no gross tissue damage.ConclusionsChronic LIPUS stimulation can effectively and safely improve depression‐like behaviors in CUS rats. The underlying mechanisms may be related to enhancement of BDNF/ERK/mTORC1 signaling pathways in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). LIPUS is a promising noninvasive neuromodulation tool that merits further study as a potential treatment for depression.

The Memory-Modifying Potential of Optogenetics and the Need for Neuroethics

Optogenetics is an invasive neuromodulation technology involving the use of light to control the activity of individual neurons. Even though optogenetics is a relatively new neuromodulation tool whose various implications have not yet been scrutinized, it has already been approved for its first clinical trials in humans. As optogenetics is being intensively investigated in animal models with the aim of developing novel brain stimulation treatments for various neurological and psychiatric disorders, it appears crucial to consider both the opportunities and dangers such therapies may offer. In this review, we focus on the memory-modifying potential of optogenetics, investigating what it is capable of and how it differs from other memory modification technologies (MMTs). We then outline the safety challenges that need to be addressed before optogenetics can be used in humans. Finally, we re-examine crucial neuroethical concerns expressed in regard to other MMTs in the light of optogenetics and address those that appear to be unique to the memory-modifying potential of optogenetic technology.

Thermoplasmonic Optical Fiber for Localized Neural Stimulation.

Thermoplasmonic effect-based neural stimulation has been suggested as an alternative optical neural stimulation technology without genetic modification. Integration of near-infrared light with plasmonic gold nanoparticles has been demonstrated as a neuromodulation tool on in vitro neuronal network models. In order to further test the validity of the thermoplasmonic neural stimulation across multiple biological models (in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo) avoiding genetic modification in optical neuromodulation, versatile engineering approaches to apply the thermoplasmonic effect would be required. In this work, we developed a gold nanorod attached optical fiber technology for the localized neural stimulation based on a thermoplasmonic effect. A simple fabrication process was developed for efficient nanoparticle coating on commercial optical fibers. The thermoplasmonic optical fiber proved that it can locally modulate the neural activity in vitro. Lastly, we simulated the spatiotemporal temperature change by the thermoplasmonic optical fiber and analyzed its applicability to in vivo animal models.

Efforts of subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation on cognitive spectrum: From explicit to implicit changes in the patients with Parkinson's disease for 1year.

ObjectiveTo evaluate the cognitive function of Chinese patients with Parkinson's disease PD postsubthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN‐DBS).MethodsCognitive function was assessed by neuropsychological methods in PD patients. Twenty matched healthy persons served as normal controls. t test, analysis of variance, and chi‐square analysis were used to compare the difference among the groups. Reliable change index was utilized to analyze the changes in cognition from the individual level.Results(a) Improvement in motor function was significantly better after STN‐DBS (P < .01). (b) Notably, the increase error rates of implicit SRTT (serial reaction time task) was significantly higher after STN‐DBS as compared with the conservative therapy group (P = .03). (c) The decline of verbal fluency (explicit) was also significantly higher after STN‐DBS than that in the medication therapy group (P = .03). (d) In the explicit clock‐drawing test, scores had significantly improved after STN‐DBS (P = .04).ConclusionsSTN‐DBS as a neuromodulatory tool in the Chinese PD population not only improves motor symptoms but also cognitive function to a certain extent, such as the decline of executive function and verbal fluency. The explicit cognitive decline was significantly quicker than that in patients on medication therapy. The improvement of visiospatial function was also noted. Implicit memory impairment during the 1‐year follow‐up period was not observed.

Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation over frontal, parietal and cerebellar cortex for cognitive function during fasting in healthy adults

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulation tool used to modify the cognitive function in subjects. There is a paucity of data on tDCS' effect on cognitive function during Ramadan fasting. This paper aims to assess the effect of tDCS of three brain areas, including the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), posterior parietal cortex (PPC), and cerebellum on cognitive function, and obtain safety data in healthy adults during Ramadan fasting. A total of 42 healthy, right-handed participants were randomly assigned to one of the 6 stimulation groups: active (anodal)-tDCS of right DLPFC, PPC, and cerebellum; or sham for DLPFC, PPC, and cerebellum after 8 h of fasting for Ramadan. Safety data and cognitive function, such as attention-switching tasks (AST), were obtained by employing the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) before and after each tDCS session. The cognitive function outcome variables were the response time and the percentage of correct answers in AST. For sham stimulation, the placement of the electrodes was the same as for the active stimulation. An improvement in performance time in attention tasks was observed; however, it did not reach a significant level after anodal stimulation of the DLPFC, PPC, and cerebellum. Overall, there were no statistically significant differences between the active and sham tDCS groups in cognitive function. There were no significant side effects of tDCS during fasting for any group. Our data suggest that there are variable effects of tDCS on attention tasks during Ramadan fasting. TDCS appears to be safe, well-tolerated and adhered to the international standard of safety in the local population during Ramadan fasting. Further large sample size studies should be conducted to validate the current study findings and reach better conclusions.

Low-Intensity Ultrasonic Neuromodulation Enhances Cell-Type-Specific Functional Encoding in Rat Anteroventral Cochlear Nucleus

Low-intensity ultrasound (LIUS) has proven to be an effective tool for direct neuro-modulation or potential non-invasive deep brain stimulation technology for treating various neurological disorders. However, the cell-type-specific modulation by LIUS has remained less well understood. In this study, we demonstrate that LIUS medicates cell-type-specific firing pattern in two major neurons of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN), the bushy (BCs) and stellate cells (SCs), using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in vitro. The results show that BCs are well maintaining phase-locking firing by LIUS to provide precise temporal processing, whereas LIUS significant increase the rate of tonic firing in SCs to promote the processing of sounds envelope. Both cell types are received similar modulation of their intrinsic membrane properties by LIUS but engage different ion channels modulatory mechanisms. Therefore, our results promote mechanisms understanding for the development of ultrasonic neuro-modulation technology and may offer an alternative therapy for central auditory processing disorders.

Focal transcranial magnetic stimulation in awake rats: Enhanced glucose uptake in deep cortical layers

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is an emerging neuromodulation tool. However, preclinical models of TMS are limited. To develop a method for performing TMS in awake rats and to characterize neuronal response to TMS by mapping glucose uptake following TMS administration. A headpost was implanted into rat skull serving as a refence to guide TMS target. Motor threshold measurement was used as the metric to assess the consistency in TMS delivery across animals and across sessions. Using a fluorescent glucose analogue (2-NBDG) as a marker of neuronal activity, we mapped glucose uptake in response to TMS of the rat motor cortex. The average motor threshold (n = 41) was 34.6 ± 6.3 % of maximum stimulator output (MSO). The variability of motor threshold across animals was similar to what has been reported in human studies. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in motor threshold measured across 3 separate days. Enhancement in fluorescent signals were TMS dose (power)-dependent, which centered around the motor cortex, covering an area medial-laterally 2 mm, rostral-caudally 4 mm at 55 % MSO, and 3 mm at 35 % MSO. The count of total cells with significant fluorescent signal was: 107 ± 23 (55 % MSO), 73 ± 11 (35 % MSO) and 42 ± 11 (sham, 5% MSO). Our method allows for consistent motor threshold assessment for longitudinal studies. Notably, cells with fluorescent signal enhancement were consistently aggregated in deep cortical layers, with minimal enhancement in superficial layers COMPARISONS WITH EXISTING METHOD(S): To our knowledge, this is the first study of focal TMS in awake rodents.

A literature review on the neurophysiological underpinnings and cognitive effects of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation: challenges and future directions.

Brain stimulation approaches are important to gain causal mechanistic insights into the relevance of functional brain regions and/or neurophysiological systems for human cognitive functions. In recent years, transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS) has attracted considerable popularity. It is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique based on the stimulation of the vagus nerve. The stimulation of this nerve activates subcortical nuclei, such as the locus coeruleus and the nucleus of the solitary tract, and from there, the activation propagates to the cortex. Since tVNS is a novel stimulation technique, this literature review outlines a brief historical background of tVNS, before detailing underlying neurophysiological mechanisms of action, stimulation parameters, cognitive effects of tVNS on healthy humans, and, lastly, current challenges and future directions of tVNS research in cognitive functions. Although more research is needed, we conclude that tVNS, by increasing norepineprine (NE) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels, affects NE- and GABA-related cognitive performance. The review provides detailed background information how to use tVNS as a neuromodulatory tool in cognitive neuroscience and outlines important future leads of research on tVNS.

Exploring the form- And time-dependent effect of low-frequency electromagnetic fields on maintenance of hippocampal long-term potentiation.

Low-frequency electromagnetic field (LF-EMF) stimulation is an emerging neuromodulation tool that is attracting more attention because of its non-invasive and well-controlled characteristics. However, the effect of different LF-EMF features including the forms and the time of addition on neuronal activity has not been completely understood. In this study, we used multi-electrode array (MEA) systems to develop a flexible in vitro magnetic stimulation device with plug-and-play features that allows for real-time delivery of LF-EMFs to biological tissues. Crucially, the method enables different forms of LF-EMF to be added at any time to a long-term potentiation (LTP) experiment without interrupting the process of LTP induction. We demonstrated that the slope of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) decreased significantly under post or priming uninterrupted sine LF-EMFs. The fEPSPs slope would continue to decline significantly when LF-EMFs were added two times with a 20-min interval. Paired-pulse ratio (PPR) was analyzed and the results reflected that LF-EMFs induced LTP was expressed postsynaptically. The results of pharmacological experiments indicated that AMPA receptor activity was involved in the process of LTP loss caused by post-LF-EMFs. Moreover, the effect of priming sine or Quadripulse stimulation (QPS)-patterned LF-EMFs depended on the time interval between the end of LF-EMF and the beginning of baseline recording. Interestingly, the effect of sine LF-EMFs on LTP would not disappear within 120min, while the impact of QPS-patterned LF-EMFs on LTP might disappear after 90min. These results indicated that LF-EMF might have a form- and time-dependent effect on LTP.

Transcranial direct current stimulation for improving gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy: A systematic review

Introduction The functional abilities of children with cerebral palsy are often compromised because of limited motor function. Transcranial direct current stimulation is a neuromodulation tool used as an adjunct to other therapeutic modalities to improve gross motor function. This review aimed to examine the quality of evidence and the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation for improving gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Method A systematic review was conducted, and eligible studies were critically appraised for methodological quality. Randomised controlled trials were selected to undergo meta-analysis for assessing the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation on clinical outcomes. Results Eight studies, including seven randomised controlled trials, fitted the inclusion criteria. All the randomised controlled trials were rated ‘moderate’ quality based on the grading of recommendations assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE) system. Using meta-analysis, only cadence, an outcome measure of gait variables, demonstrated efficacy of intervention, mean difference 16.57 (10.88, 22.25); I2 = 0%, P = 0.83. Other gross motor and functional outcomes had either inconsistent mean difference or high heterogeneity. Conclusion Overall, the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation as a treatment in children with cerebral palsy remains unclear, and the findings should be interpreted with caution. The quality of evidence was mostly moderate, and more vigorous research incorporating functional outcomes should be conducted to guide clinical practice.

Animal Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Trends and Path Toward Standardization.

Animal whole-brain functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides a non-invasive window into brain activity. A collection of associated methods aims to replicate observations made in humans and to identify the mechanisms underlying the distributed neuronal activity in the healthy and disordered brain. Animal fMRI studies have developed rapidly over the past years, fueled by the development of resting-state fMRI connectivity and genetically encoded neuromodulatory tools. Yet, comparisons between sites remain hampered by lack of standardization. Recently, we highlighted that mouse resting-state functional connectivity converges across centers, although large discrepancies in sensitivity and specificity remained. Here, we explore past and present trends within the animal fMRI community and highlight critical aspects in study design, data acquisition, and post-processing operations, that may affect the results and influence the comparability between studies. We also suggest practices aimed to promote the adoption of standards within the community and improve between-lab reproducibility. The implementation of standardized animal neuroimaging protocols will facilitate animal population imaging efforts as well as meta-analysis and replication studies, the gold standards in evidence-based science.

Flexible and stretchable opto-electric neural interface for low-noise electrocorticogram recordings and neuromodulation in vivo

Optogenetic-based neuromodulation tools is evolving for the basic neuroscience research in animals combining optical manipulation and electrophysiological recordings. However, current opto-electric integrated devices attaching on cerebral cortex for electrocorticogram (ECoG) still exist potential damage risks for both brain tissue and electrode, due to the mechanical mismatch and brain deformation. Here, we propose a stretchable opto-electric integrated neural interface by integrating serpentine-shaped electrodes and multisite micro-LEDs onto a hyperelastic substrate, as well as a serpentine-shaped metal shielding embedded in recording electrode for low-noise signal acquisition. The delicate structure design, ultrasoft encapsulation and independent fabrication followed by assembly are beneficial to the conformality, reliability and yield. In vitro accelerated deterioration and reciprocating tensile have demonstrated good performance and high stability. In vivo optogenetic activation of focal cortical areas of awaked mouse expressing Channelrhodopsin-2 is realized with simultaneous high-quality recording. We highlight the potential use of this multifunctional neural interface for neural applications.

Localized anesthesia of a specific brain region using ultrasound-responsive barbiturate nanodroplets.

Background: Targeted neuromodulation is a valuable technique for the study and treatment of the brain. Using focused ultrasound to target the local delivery of anesthetics in the brain offers a safe and reproducible option for suppressing neuronal activity.Objective: To develop a potential new tool for localized neuromodulation through the triggered release of pentobarbital from ultrasound-responsive nanodroplets.Method: The commercial microbubble contrast agent, Definity, was filled with decafluorobutane gas and loaded with a lipophilic anesthetic drug, before being condensed into liquid-filled nanodroplets of 210 ± 80 nm. Focused ultrasound at 0.58 MHz was found to convert nanodroplets into microbubbles, simultaneously releasing the drug and inducing local anesthesia in the motor cortex of rats (n=8).Results: Behavioral analysis indicated a 19.1 ± 13% motor deficit on the contralateral side of treated animals, assessed through the cylinder test and gait analysis, illustrating successful local anesthesia, without compromising the blood-brain barrier.Conclusion: Pentobarbital-loaded decafluorobutane-core Definity-based nanodroplets are a potential agent for ultrasound-triggered and targeted neuromodulation.

Remotely supervised transcranial direct current stimulation: A feasibility study for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been investigated as a therapeutic neuromodulation tool in several neurological disorders. However, evidence supporting its efficacy in disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is limited possibly due to limited patient accessibility for research, particularly for individuals with advanced disease progression. Telerehabilitation using home-based protocols allows for remote supervision of tDCS over longer durations, thereby increasing participation, compliance and adherence. In this study, we explored the safety, feasibility and preliminary effects of a remotely supervised tDCS (RS-tDCS) protocol in ALS. In this pre-post case series study, two individuals with ALS completed 24 remotely supervised anodal tDCS sessions (20 minutes, 2 mA). Outcomes included adherence, compliance, disease progression, walking speed, risk of fall, endurance, fatigue and depression. Both participants successfully completed the study without any major adverse effects. Minor side effects included mild sensations of itching and throbbing under the electrodes during stimulation. Clinical outcomes showed minimal to no change for any of the measures. Preliminary findings suggest that the RS-tDCS protocol is safe and feasible in individuals with ALS. Our protocol serves as a model for future long-term studies to evaluate the clinical and neurophysiological effects of tDCS using a telerehabilitation protocol in ALS.

High-Resolution Transcranial Electrical Simulation for Living Mice Based on Magneto-Acoustic Effect

Transcranial electrical stimulation is an important neuromodulation tool, which has been widely applied in the cognitive sciences and in the treatment of neurological and psychiatric diseases. In this work, a novel non-invasive method of transcranial electrical stimulation with high-resolution transcranial magneto-acoustic stimulation (TMAS) method has been tested experimentally in living mice for the first time. It can achieve spatial resolution of 2 mm in the cortex and even in the deep brain regions. The induced electrical field of TMAS was simulated and measured using a test sample. Then, an animal experimental system was built, and the healthy as well as Parkinson’s disease (PD) mice were simulated by TMAS in vivo. To investigate the effect of transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) at the same time as TMAS, a TUS group was added in the experiments and its results compared with those of the TMAS group. The results not only demonstrate the high-resolution ability and safety of TMAS, but also show that both TMAS and TUS improved the synaptic plasticity of the PD mice and might improve the spatial learning and memory ability of the healthy mice and the PD mice, although the improvement performance of the TMAS group was superior to that of the TUS-group. Based on the in vivo TMAS studies, we propose that TMAS functions as a dual-mode stimulation combining the electric field of the magneto-acoustic effect and the mechanical force of TUS. Our results also provide an explanation of the mechanism of TMAS. This research suggests that future use of US stimulation in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-guided studies should involve careful consideration of the induced magneto-acoustic electrical field caused by the static magnetic field of MRI.

Optogenetic Modulation for the Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury.

Although research involving traumatic brain injury (TBI) has traditionally focused on the acute clinical manifestations, new studies provide evidence for chronic and progressive neurological sequelae associated with TBI, highlighting the risk of persistent, and sometimes life-long, consequences for affected patients. Several treatment modalities to date have demonstrated efficacy in experimental models. However, there is currently no effective treatment to improve neural structure repair and functional recovery of TBI patients. Optogenetics represents a potential molecular tool for neuromodulation and monitoring cellular activity with unprecedented spatial resolution and millisecond temporal precision. In this review, we discuss the conceptual background and preclinical evidence of optogenetics for neuromodulation, and translational applications for TBI treatment are considered.

Current challenges: the ups and downs of tACS.

The non-invasive delivery of electric currents through the scalp (transcranial electrical stimulation) is a popular tool for neuromodulation, mostly due to its highly adaptable nature (waveform, montage) and tolerability at low intensities (< 2mA). Applied rhythmically, transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) may entrain neural oscillations in a frequency- and phase-specific manner, providing a causal perspective on brain-behaviour relationships. While the past decade has seen many behavioural and electrophysiological effects of tACS that suggest entrainment-mediated effects in the brain, it has been difficult to reconcile such reports with the weak intracranial field strengths (< 1 V/m)achievable at conventional intensities. In this review, we first describe the ongoing challenges faced by users of tACS. We outline the biophysics of electrical brain stimulation and the factors that contribute to the weak field intensities achievable in the brain. Since the applied current predominantly shunts through the scalp-stimulating the nerves that innervate it-the plausibility of transcutaneous (rather than transcranial) effects of tACS is also discussed. In examining the effects of tACS on brain activity, the complex problem of salvaging electrophysiological recordings from artefacts of tACS is described. Nevertheless, these challenges by no means mark the rise and fall of tACS: the second part of this review outlines the recent advancements in the field. We describe some ways in which artefacts of tACS may be better managed using high-frequency protocols, and describe innovative methods for current interactions within the brain that offer either dynamic or more focal current distributions while also minimising transcutaneous effects.

Effects of uninterrupted sinusoidal LF-EMF stimulation on LTP induced by different combinations of TBS/HFS at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 of synapses

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is an important aspect of synaptic plasticity and is one of the main mechanisms involved in memory. Low-frequency electromagnetic fields (LF-EMFs) such as transcranial magnetic stimulation are emerging neuromodulation tools for the regulation of LTP. However, whether LF-EMFs have different effects on different types of LTP has not yet been verified. Herein, we studied the regulatory effects of 15 Hz/2 mT sinusoidal magnetic field as pre-magnetic stimulation on several types of LTP, which were induced by theta-burst(TBS) or high-frequency stimulation (HFS) or some combination of them, and applied N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor(NMDAR) antagonists to observe the relationship between the regulation of LTP by LF-EMFs and NMDAR in the Schaffer collateral pathway of rat brain slices in vitro. The results presented in this paper are the performance of TBS and HFS was not exactly the same and the recovery speed of TBS-LTP was faster than HFS-LTP after receiving the regulation of LF-EMFs; moreover, the LTP level was affected by the order of combination and the effect of pre-magnetic stimulation could maintain the entire process of the combined induction experiment, while NMDAR antagonists could not completely offset the influence of LF-EMFs. The memory patterns are diverse, and this study has shown LF-EMFs can regulate LTP such as TBS-LTP and HFS-LTP and can continuously affect multiple LTP induction processes. However, different memory processes may have different performance in the face of LF-EMFs regulation. In terms of the mechanism of LF-EMFs-induced LTP regulation, NMDARs may be involved in the process of LF-EMF regulation of LTP, but are not the only factor.

The future role of fMRI neurofeedback in depression treatment and research

Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) has a disconcertingly high relapse rate (70–80% within a year following withdrawal). Preventing relapse or minimizing its extent is hence a challenging goal for long-term successful management of AUD. New perspectives that rely on diverse neuromodulation tools have been developed in this regard as care supports. This paper focuses on electroencephalogram-neurofeedback (EEG-NF), which is a tool that has experienced renewed interest in both clinical and research areas. We review the literature on EEG-based neurofeedback studies investigating the efficacy in AUD and including at least 10 neurofeedback training sessions. As neurofeedback is a form of biofeedback in which a measure of brain activity is provided as feedback in real-time to a subject, the high degree of temporal resolution of the EEG interface supports optimal learning. By offering a wide range of brain oscillation targets (alpha, beta, theta, delta, gamma, and SMR) the EEG-NF procedure increases the scope of possible investigations through a multitude of experimental protocols that can be considered to reinforce or inhibit specific forms of EEG activity associated with AUD-related cognitive impairments. The present review provides an overview of the EEG-NF protocols that have been used in AUD and it highlights the current paucity of robust evidence. Within this framework, this review presents the arguments in favor of the application of EEG-NF as an add-on tool in the management of alcohol disorders to enhance the cognitive abilities required to maintain abstinence more specifically, with a focus on inhibition and attentional skills.