Tire Performance Research Articles

Utilization of biosilica for energy-saving tire compounds: Enhancing performance and efficiency

Abstract Energy-saving tires have been developed by researchers in the industry in order to minimize hysteresis loss. In general, this is achieved by combining precipitated silica sourced from silica sand with a silane coupling agent. This strategic reaction serves to elevate the performance characteristics of tread tire, effectively enhancing their properties. Therefore, this research is aimed to investigate the utilization of commercially available biosilica compared to high dispersed (HD) silica, examining their potential as reinforcing agents in the composition of passenger tread tire compound. This compound was formulated using a blend of solution styrene-butadiene rubber (SSBR) and butadiene rubber (BR). A comprehensive analysis was conducted to assess the impact of varying ratios between biosilica and HD silica on the mechanical and dynamic properties of tread tire compound composed of SSBR and BR blend. The results showed that the incorporation of biosilica could effectively reduce the filler network resulting in better dispersion of biosilica in the SSBR/BR blend matrix. As a result, it improved wet grip (44%) and rolling resistance (26%) while maintaining abrasion resistance compared with HD silica in passenger tread tire compound. The application of biosilica as an eco-friendly reinforcement material exhibited its potential for elevating the performance of energy-efficient tread tire.

Influence of oligomeric resins on natural rubber-carbon black-silica composites for tire tread application

The investigation aims to understand the impact of different resins on properties of natural rubber (NR) based tire tread composites, providing valuable insights for the optimization of tire performance. In current research six different types of resins, namely rosin modified dicyclopentadiene(DCPD), gum rosin, C5 aliphatic resin, alpha methyl styrene (AMS) resin, koresin and terpene phenol resin, were selected for assessing structural influence of resins on cure characteristics, reinforcement, abrasion resistance, cut-tear resistance, heat-build-up, viscoelastic properties of carbon black-silica loaded NR composites. During mixing of rubber composites, condensation reaction between hydroxyl groups of silica with phenolic groups of koresin and terpene phenol resin, leading to elimination of water molecules was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The addition of resins led to a reduction in crosslink density, maximum torque and delta torque. The compounds with gum rosin and rosin modified DCPD showed lower crosslink densities translating into lower tensile strength, lower stress at 100%, 200%, 300% strain, and higher elongation at break among the resins. Rosin modified DCPD based composite exhibited the highest cut growth resistance and tear strength. Rolling resistance indicator (tanδ@70 °C) of resin-based composites followed the order: gum rosin > rosin modified DCPD > koresin > C5 resin > terpene phenol resin > AMS resin. The snow traction (tanδ@-15 °C), the order was: AMS = C5 > gum rosin > terpene phenol = koresin > rosin modified DCPD. The dynamic stiffness (É) of the gum rosin-based compound was significantly increased at low strain (0.1%) and low temperatures (-80–20 °C) compared to other resins. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy was employed to analyze surface topography and roughness of the resin-based NR composites, providing valuable insights into interfacial characteristics.

О проблеме безопасной эксплуатации крупногабаритных шин

The issues of operating large tires in the conditions of mining enterprises do not lose their relevance, since the costs of their acquisition and maintenance are among the main expense items of the mining transport enterprises. Lack of control over the thermal state and pressure of the large tires in many cases leads to both significant economic damage in the event of a fire or explosion, and a threat to the life and health of the employees. It is required to take into account that a large tire is a multi-ton product that is constantly under high pressure. The combination of such properties of the tires under consideration as large weight and dimensions, high pressure, is in itself a potentially dangerous factor that requires increased attention. Therefore, it is vitally important for the employees working near large tires, especially dump truck drivers, to be confident in their technical serviceability. This can only be achieved through constant monitoring of their thermal state and pressure. Thermal destruction of the large tires is due to the fact that during operation, due to the deformation and internal friction of the tire carcass elements during rolling, excess heat generation occurs. At the same time, the main materials and adhesives used to produce tires are very sensitive to high temperatures. Excessive heat generation weakens and destroys the bonds between tire structural elements and causes restructuring of the rubber. Thermal failure of large tires can be a consequence of exceeding the standard performance indicator, as well as their operation at low pressure. Both of these factors equally require attention from the specialists in the operation department of a mining and transport enterprise. Since the large tires do not have obvious signs of their critical condition, it is not possible to detect the characteristic features of the onset of thermal destruction by visual inspection (rubber restructuring and delamination occurs in the inner layers of the tire). The article provides an example of improving the safety of operation of the large tires at one of the Kuzbass coal mining enterprises by introducing systems for monitoring the thermal state and internal pressure of tires. The measures taken and the results achieved are described.

Reutilization of scrap tyre for the enhanced removal of phthalate esters from water: immobilization performance, interaction mechanisms, and application

Waste scrap tyre as microbial immobilization matrix enhanced degradation of phthalate esters (PAEs), di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP). The hybrid (physical adsorption and microbial immobilization) degradation process performance of scrap tyres was examined for the PAEs degradation. The scrap tyre was shown with competitive adsorption capacity toward PAEs, influenced by pH, temperature, dosage of adsorbent (scrap tyre), and concentration of PAE. The primary adsorption mechanism for tyres toward PAEs was considered hydrophobic. The immobilization of previously isolated Bacillus sp. MY156 on tyre surface significantly enhanced PAEs degradation as well as bacterial growth. The enzymatic activity results implied immobilization promoted dehydrogenase activity and decreased esterase activity. The cell surface response during PAEs degradation, in terms of morphological observation, FTIR and XRD analyses, and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) release, was further assessed to better understand the interactions between microorganisms and tyre surface. Waste scrap tyres could be a promising potential candidate to be reused for sustainable environmental management, including contaminants removal.

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL TIRE REF MODEL IN ROLLING CONTACT WITH APPLICATION TO INTELLIGENT TIRES

ABSTRACT A new three-dimensional tire REF (ring on elastic foundation) model in rolling contact has been proposed and verified in this paper. The motivation is to apply this new physical model to the three-dimensional forces estimation for intelligent tires, which is currently a research hotspot in the automotive industry. The core contribution is the analytical solution of the three-dimensional tire deformation, stress, and forces in complex rolling contact. This new physical model is universal and efficient in linking intelligent tire signals with the solution results, which provides a powerful theoretical tool for intelligent tire modeling. Furthermore, the results have been validated by sensitivity analysis of key structural parameters on tire performance. In summary, through the modeling, verification, and application in case studies, it has been shown that the proposed methodology can be used for real practical three-dimensional forces estimation, which has the potential to simplify the vehicle state observer and benefit autonomous vehicles.

A data-driven framework for forecasting transient vehicle thermal performances

Transient vehicle dynamics are deeply affected by the spatial distribution of tire temperature, heat generation, and heat dissipation capacity. However, the tire testing process involves numerous parameters, adding the complexity to monitoring the tire’s thermal properties variation. To address this issue, this paper proposes a data-driven framework that combines the well-known Magic Formula with scaling factors and a long- and short-term memory (LSTM) neural network. The framework forecasts tire thermal properties and functionality under given conditions by learning from time-series data on tire operating conditions and mechanical characteristics. It predicts future spatially varying thermal properties of the tire, including temperatures, heat generation, and heat dissipation. This is achieved with a high degree of forecasting ability quantified by train size/test size ratios equaling 22 and 38% with an impressive Relative Root Mean Square Error (RRMSE) around 1−2%. Here, this framework is applied to quantify the impacts of various operating conditions, including vertical load, slip angle, and vehicle speed, on heat transfer for three crucial radial positions on the tire. Our results show that the vertical load is the primary influencing parameter among all operating conditions. The knowledge about transient tire dynamics will be advantageous to their performance optimization.

Topological Shape Optimization Design of the Whole Bead of 265/35R18 Steel-Belted Radial Tire

The tire bead, as the most important load-bearing component at the bead area, is closely related to the durability of the tire, but its structure is developing slowly. For this reason, the topological whole bead design was proposed, although it performs well, many defects existed due to the design based on traditional experience. Therefore, this paper studies the topology shape optimization algorithm, delves into the main criterion based on von Mises and the interlaminar shear stress, and provides guidance for the structurally optimal design of the 265/35R18 radial tire whole bead. The finite element simulation results show that the von Mises of the inner end of the chafer and the end of the carcass cord are reduced by 14.48% and 24.12%, respectively. The interlaminar shear stress decreased by 28.96% and 49.51%, respectively. The von Mises of chafer and carcass cord decreased by 13.17% to 40.36% and 7.71% to 20.51%, respectively. The optimization design is of great significance to further improve the safety performance of tires.

Development of a tire testing machine for evaluating the performance of tractor tires based on the soil compaction

Soil compaction, which is more effective than soil shear owing to the weight of tractor tires, reduces sugarcane cultivation. Instead of a field study, a single-wheel tester is more suitable for studying the tractor tire tracks on a soil bin in a laboratory. However, the soil compaction measurement is time consuming and analyzes the bulk density only at the sampling point of the track. In this study, a tire-testing machine (TTM) was developed to evaluate tractor tire performance based on soil compaction. A 3D scanner was employed to model the tractor tire track on a sandy clay loam soil, which is suitable for sugarcane planting in Thailand. Mathematical models for soil bulk density prediction were proposed and used to transform the 3D footprint model into a 3D color contour of the soil bulk density. The soil compaction effect of tractor tires at three different tread depths was evaluated. It was found that deeper treads caused higher soil bulk density than shallow treads. Static tires induce greater soil bulk density than rolling tires. This novel TTM with measurement techniques is a novel method for evaluating the tire-soil compaction in crop fields. It can also guide farmers to purchase suitable agricultural tires.

Topological Optimization of Non-Pneumatic Unique Puncture-Proof Tire System Spoke Design for Tire Performance

<div>Non-pneumatic tires (NPTs) have been widely used due to their advantages of no occurrence of puncture-related problems, no need of air maintenance, low rolling resistance, and improvement of passenger comfort due to its better shock absorption. It has a variety of applications as in earthmovers, planetary rover, stair-climbing vehicles, and the like. Recently, the unique puncture-proof tire system (UPTIS) NPT has been introduced for passenger vehicles segment. The spoke design of NPT-UPTIS has a significant effect on the overall working performance of tire. Optimized tire performance is a crucial factor for consumers and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Hence to optimize the spoke design of NPT-UPTIS spoke, the top and bottom curve of spoke profile have been described in the form of analytical equations. A generative design concept has been introduced to create around 50,000 spoke profiles. Finite element model (FEM) model is developed to evaluate the stiffness and damage-resisting performance of NPT-UPTIS spoke. The FEM methodology has also been validated with average accuracy of more than 95% for experimental vertical stiffness for commercial NPT-Tweel. The stiffness and damage-resisting performance of generated designs have been predicted with the help of machine learning regression models, which were trained on the FEM results of 200 such designs. These 50,000 generated designs have been categorized in four different categories based on different level of stiffness and damage resistance performance. In this study, one optimized design from each category has been selected and their performance have been validated with 3D FEM simulation. It has been found that the suggested topology optimization approach is efficient to generate UPTIS spoke designs with having ±30% stiffness with 17%, 40%, and 56% more damage resistance performances with respect to the starting reference design.</div>

Finite element analysis of studded tyre performance on snow: a study of traction

This paper presents a finite element analysis (FEA) model of a studded tyre rolling on snow. The model takes into account the mechanical properties of both the tyre and the snow, as well as the interactions between them. The FEA simulations were performed using single set of 99 studs with constant compaction depth, and the results were compared to experimental data. The study found that the studded tyre was able to significantly improve traction on snow-covered roads by a minimum factor of 1.17 at −50% slip and a maximum factor of 1.5 at an interval of 50% to 100% slip, compared to non-studded tyre, and that the FEA model accurately predicted the tyre’s behaviour in these conditions. The results of this study can be used to optimise the design of studded tyres and to improve the safety of vehicles in snowy conditions.

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL TIRE RING ON ELASTIC FOUNDATION MODEL IN ROLLING CONTACT WITH APPLICATION TO INTELLIGENT TIRES

ABSTRACT A new three-dimensional tire ring on elastic foundation model in rolling contact has been proposed and verified. The motivation is to apply this new physical model to the three-dimensional forces’ estimation for intelligent tires, a current research challenge in the automotive industry. The core contribution is the analytical solution of the three-dimensional tire deformation, stress, and forces in complex rolling contact. This new physical model is universal and efficient in linking intelligent tire signals with the solution results, thereby providing a powerful theoretical tool for intelligent tire modeling. Furthermore, the results have been validated by sensitivity analysis of key structural parameters on tire performance. In summary, through modeling, verification, and application in case studies, it has been shown that the proposed methodology can be used for real, practical three-dimensional forces estimation, offering the potential to simplify the vehicle state observer and benefit autonomous vehicles.

Impact of camber angle on the tire tread behaviour in different road conditions

The camber angle is one of the wheel alignment properties that is crucial as a slight change to the orientation of the camber angle determines the lifespan of a tire. The stress distribution on the innermost of a tire increase as the positive camber angle is increased, and vice versa, which causes the abnormal uneven premature wear of the tire. This research is done with the main objectives to simulate the performance of tires concerning the camber angle by using the finite element analysis method, and to study the influence of camber angle on different tire tread patterns under two different road conditions, i.e., smooth road and irregular road. Three tire models with different tire tread patterns and two different road conditions are developed using SolidWorks while the investigation of each tire performance is done through ANSYS under static condition in this research. Tire inflation analysis is performed using static structural analysis feature available in ANSYS where the total deformation and equivalent stress are determined based on the specific vertical load applied onto the tire, ignoring any damping effects and inertia. Boundary conditions and other relevant constraints are applied, and then mesh independent test is carried out to all tire models prior to performing the simulation. Based on the simulation results, the maximum total deformation increases as the camber angle increases in both road conditions, while the maximum equivalent stress does not show any trend. It is concluded that tire tread pattern influences the maximum equivalent stress experienced by the tire.

EVALUATION OF E-SCOOTER TYRE PERFORMANCE USING DYNAMOMETER-BASED COAST-DOWN TESTS

AbstractE-scooters have become a popular form of personal transport with millions of E-scooters used worldwide. This paper details an initial investigation into the relative differences in rolling resistance for a range of e-scooter tyres. Tyre performance was measured using dynamometer-based coast-down tests to determine the coast-down distance and coefficient of rolling resistance of each tyre. Insights from testing showed that e-scooter tyres had coefficients of rolling resistance that were 3.5 to 6 times the coefficient of rolling resistance of a 700x32C bike tyre. Comparisons between tyres of similar specification showed the tyres with solid inserts had more rolling resistance than a pneumatic tyre at the rated pressure. Comparisons of equivalent airless and pneumatic tyres the rated pressure indicated airless tyres had slightly better performance in terms of coast-down distance. The results also show how a decrease in tyre pressure increases rolling resistance, highlighting the importance of maintaining rated tyre pressure to improve e-scooter efficiency. The results from this study provide useful insights into the performance of tyres that can be used on low-powered vehicles.

Correlating tire traction performance on snow with measured parameters of ASTM F1805 using regression analysis

Winter tires sold in North America are often tested using the ASTM F1805 testing process to determine if they can be labeled with the ‘mountain snowflake’ symbol which indicates better performance for snow usage. The standard dictates the requirements for testing and necessary track preparation methodologies. In addition, the requirements of the standard dictate the range of three major conditions for tests to be carried out, namely the CTI penetration measurement, the snow temperature, and the ambient temperature. However, these parameters cannot be directly used in the simulation stage of snow modeling for better evaluation of prototypes. It is well-known that snow properties depend on a wide variety of parameters, making the creation of an accurate and robust snow material model, and, consequently, applying a simulation-based approach for tire design, difficult.This work focuses on the analysis of a dataset of five winter seasons of a 14-in. Standard Reference Test Tire on snow used to benchmark the performance of a potential winter tire. The blinded data measured at Smithers Winter Test Center were used in the analysis to train regression models for predicting the traction coefficient and evaluating the extent to which the measured parameters affect the variation in the traction coefficient. This study utilized twenty-six different modeling approaches and implementation of principal component analysis. The findings of this study highlight the relative importance of the compression and shear characteristics of the snow on the traction of the tire. It was found that regression methods based on Gaussian processes were better at predicting the traction coefficient. The study also highlights the importance of utilizing a single physical tire as the reference tire for benchmarking according to the ASTM F1805.

Optimized End Functionality of Silane-Terminated Liquid Butadiene Rubber for Silica-Filled Rubber Compounds.

As the world is shifting from internal combustion engine vehicles to electric vehicles in response to environmental pollution, the tire industry has been conducting research on tire performance to meet the requirements of electric vehicles. In this experiment, functionalized liquid butadiene rubber (F-LqBR) with triethoxysilyl groups at both ends was introduced into a silica-filled rubber compound as a substitute for treated distillate aromatic extract (TDAE) oil, and comparative evaluation was conducted according to the number of triethoxysilyl groups. The results showed that F-LqBRs improved silica dispersion in the rubber matrix through the formation of chemical bonds between silanol groups and the base rubber, and reduced rolling resistance by limiting chain end mobility and improving filler-rubber interaction. However, when the number of triethoxysilyl groups in F-LqBR was increased from two to four, self-condensation increased, the reactivity of the silanol groups decreased, and the improvement of properties was reduced. As a result, the optimized end functionality of triethoxysilyl groups for F-LqBR in silica-filled rubber compound was two. The 2-Azo-LqBR with the optimized functionality showed an improvement of 10% in rolling resistance, 16% in snow traction, and 17% in abrasion resistance when 10 phr of TDAE oil was substituted.

Seasonality of wheeled vehicle tires: technical requirements and legal regulations

The article is devoted to the study of technical requirements and legal regulation of the use of tires on wheeled vehicles, the type of which corresponds to the season. The current legislation of Ukraine in the field of ensuring road traffic safety, which defines the requirements for the technical condition of vehicles and their equipment, as well as legal acts concerning the rules for operating pneumatic tires of certain categories of wheeled vehicles, in particular, the orders of the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine "About approval of the Rules for the technical operation of wheels and pneumatic tires of wheeled vehicles of categories L, M, N, O and special machines made on their chassis" dated 07.26.2013 No. 549 and "On Approval of the Rules for the Operation of Wheeled Vehicles" dated 07.26.2013 No. 550. The need to enforce the obligation to use winter/all-season tires on wheeled vehicles of certain categories at the legislative level and to establish administrative liability for the person driving the vehicle for non-compliance with technical requirements, including when tires out of season. The project of the Law of Ukraine "On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine on the Safety of Vehicles" dated 19.01.2023 No. 8369 was analyzed, based on which it is proposed to amend Article 37 of the Law of Ukraine "On Road Traffic" regarding the need to install tires on the vehicle, type which corresponds to the season; to Sections 1 and 31 of the Road Traffic Rules, approved by Resolution No. 1306 of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated 10.10.2001 regarding the establishment at the legislative level of the definitions of winter and summer seasons, the minimum permissible height of the tire tread pattern in the winter season and the obligation to install winter/all-season tires in the specified period for a certain category of vehicles; to the first part of Article 121 of the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offenses regarding the establishment of liability for non-compliance with the requirements, according to which the established rules prohibit the operation of a vehicle, including the use of tires, the type of which corresponds to the season.

Comparison of Water Discharge Performance of Motorcycle Tires with Different Tread Patterns by Applying CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) Technique

The tire is one of the most important vehicle parts that provide contact between the vehicle and the road surface together with the air it carries in it. Some traffic accidents are due to driving performance on the wet road surface. Aquaplaning on water occurs when depressions and sloping areas on the asphalt become filled with water, causing it to accumulate. When a vehicle passes over a puddle, its tires lose contact with the ground, causing it to slide instead of tire pattern channels helping roll on the water. This can cause problems with water drainage. When a vehicle passes over a puddle, its tires lose contact with the ground, causing it to slide instead of roll on the water. This can cause problems with water drainage. For this reason, it is extremely important to design the pattern on the tires properly. The pattern channels on the tire help to evacuate water by passing it through the channels formed on the asphalt surface. However, in cases where the amount of water is high, the pattern channels will be forced after a while and lose contact with the ground, as they cannot discharge all the water bodies. For this reason, it is extremely important to design the pattern on the tires properly. The study analyzed the water evacuation effects of motorcycle tires with three different tread patterns on wet surfaces, taking into account different factors such as contact angles, driving direction, and driving speeds. The data obtained from the study indicate that the tread pattern design has a significant impact on the aquaplaning performance of tires on water surfaces.

Numerical Study of Dynamic Hydroplaning Effects on Motorcycle Tires

Hydroplaning is a hydrodynamic phenomenon and has crucial effects on motorcycle tires that roll on a wet road at high speed. It causes an accident that results in numerous injuries and deaths of motorcyclists. This accident happens to an overestimation of the dynamic tire performance. Therefore, this research aims to propose a mathematical model to predict the maximum hydroplaning speed of motorcycle tires. The motorcycle tire was experimentally performed the hydroplaning test by the developing machine. The fluid-structure interaction (FSI), in which a rolling tire interacted with fluid on the road, was modeled using finite element and finite volume methods. It compared against the experiment and was in good agreement. Therefore, motorcycle tire hydroplaning was studied by varying velocities, inflation pressures, and carrying loads. It was found that the hydroplaning speeds had a serious relationship only to the carrying loads. Therefore, the novel function of hydroplaning velocity was established in the carrying load form. It is simple to specify the maximum hydroplaning speed of motorcycle tires. In addition, it will be a good and novel guidance tool for motorcycle riding communities and motorcycle tire manufacturers to calculate hydroplaning resistance of their motorcycle tires.

A Study on Self-Sustained Vibrations of a Tire Operating above Peak Friction

ABSTRACT When a tire operates at a side slip level above peak friction, large vibrations in the produced forces and moments are observed. In the lateral direction, these vibrations are typically centered at frequencies close to 50 Hz and significantly affect the force that is produced by the tire. As an example, high dynamics vehicle maneuvers with an electronic stability program control system in the loop can be affected by this behavior. To accurately reproduce the tire response in these operating conditions, it is important to employ a model that can capture this phenomenon. Based on analysis of nonlinear, unstable systems and limit cycle phenomenon, a theory is presented that provides a physical background for the source of vibrations. The theory also gives insight in how the frequency and amplitude of the vibrations are influenced by the tire physical characteristics and the operating conditions. It is found that the most dominant characteristics are the shape of the steady-state force response of the tire around peak friction, the contact patch mass, the carcass damping and stiffness. Simulations with physical models of different complexity levels, as well as with the commercial Simcenter Tire MF-Tyre/MF-Swift tire software model, validate the theory and demonstrate how the vibrations can be reproduced in a simulation environment. The simulation results are compared with tire measurements in different operating conditions, validating the exposed theory and employed models.

Experimental study on the mechanical performance of tyre encased soil elements for structural wall applications

Tyre-encased-soil elements (TESEs) are segmental units made by compacting soil inside the cavity of EOL tyres. The TESEs can function similarly to bricks to build masonry walls or other load-bearing structures. Tyre walls built of TESEs have proven successful architectural and structural performance. However, the mechanical properties of TESEs have not been scientifically investigated in the past, and insufficient evidence restricted TESEs’ further application as structural components. This project attempted to fill the gap by studying the performance of TESEs subject to axial compressive loads through both laboratory experiments and analytical analysis. Soils with different properties were used in the experiments to quantify their influence on the TESEs performance. It was found that within the range of loading applied in this study, no abrupt failure was observed on the tested TESEs. The axial stress-strain relationship followed an exponential form, possibly due to the strain-hardening effect brought in by the densification of encased soil and increased confinement support from the tyre reinforcement. The encased soil’s density had a significant influence on the load-deformation behaviour of the TESEs. However, the load-carrying capacities were not highly sensitive to the soil type and its moisture content. An analytical model was proposed for capturing the axial and radial strain of TESEs under applied axial loads with a reasonable accuracy. In material characterisation, the strength of EOL tyres captured in the inflation tests were significantly larger than those obtained from direct tensile tests, which revealed the cut tyre strip could not capture the synergic effect of the embedded tyre reinforcement composites in a representative manner. The results of this study can be used by built environment professionals to design and analyse the performance of tyre encased soil and tyre walls.