Tin Production Research Articles

Mixed lead sources in tin metal: Implications for using lead isotopes to study tin artifacts

Methods for provenancing copper, lead, and silver using the isotopic composition of lead are well-established. Lead isotope analysis holds promise for the study of tin metal as well, as long as one accounts for the U-Th-Pb systematics of cassiterite (SnO2) and chaîne opératoire of tin production. Although Precambrian cassiterite may contain 10s of ppm Pb or more (predominantly radiogenic 206Pb), Phanerozoic examples typically contain only a few parts per million Pb. However, all but one of the 133 raw tin ingots excavated from European Bronze Age shipwrecks contains more Pb than could have come from cassiterite alone, as do six of the twelve analyzed tin objects interpreted to have been derived from the ores of southern Africa. Accordingly, almost all tin objects must contain Pb from external cassiterite sources and interpretation of LIA must account for this contamination. The nature of the contaminant (sulfides, U-Th-bearing minerals, silicates) can be inferred from patterns in Pb concentration and LI values. The 3 major sources of Pb that can typically be identified in tin artifacts are original Pb from the tin ore, radiogenic Pb produced in-situ due to U decay, and external Pb added during the cassiterite smelting and ingot production. As cassiterite has high U/Pb but low Th/Pb, the 208Pb/204Pb may be representative of the initial Pb incorporated in the mineral. This is assuming either that no external Pb is added during the ore processing or that the added Pb is from coeval sulfides from the same Pb ore provenance. In such cases 208Pb/204 Pb can be used to estimate a Pb model age, which in turn can be used for provenance estimate of the ingots. If the addition of Pb is from U-Th-mineral contaminants to the ore concentrate, then this will also increase 208Pb/204Pb and point to erroneously young model Pb ages. In such cases, the problem would be evident in positively correlated values of 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb. If Pb concentrations are above a certain threshold (approximately 5 ppm). LIA typical common Pb isotope ratios will be clear indication that external, non-cassiterite Pb, is added to the tin artifact. This tin could be from impurities in the ore (e.g., inclusions in cassiterite, impurities in the ore concentrate, or added during ore smelting and/or metal processing. Overall, elevated Pb concentrations accompanied with non-radiogenic Pb isotopes typical for common Pb, is a clear indication that significant amount of external (contaminant) Pb is added to the tin artifact.

Circular Economy Principles in the Regulatory Oversight of the Management of By- Products – Case Study: Tin Slag 2

The tin processing industry generates abundant slag, as a by-product, that contains radioactive substances from uranium and thorium decay series radionuclides. The increase in tin production will be proportional to the rise in tin slag. The Circular economy is a concept that aims to minimize the extraction of primary resources, keep resources as long as possible, increase added value, or limit the final disposal of waste. The concept of reuse, recycling, or reprocessing is part of the concept. This paper aims to identify aspects of the existing regulations in Indonesia that support circular economy principles in the management of by-products, such as tin slag 2. The methodology used in this paper is a literature study of regulations, international recommendations, and related research. Based on the measurements of tin slag 2 samples originating from Bangka Belitung Province, the main chemical constituents based on XRF analysis are SiO2, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, and TiO2. The activity concentration of a tin slag 2 sample showed a value that exceeded the criterion of 1 Bq/gram for the radionuclides in the uranium and thorium decay series. From a material perspective, tin slag 2 can be reused or recycled for specific purposes. Various studies have proven the performance of tin slag 2 as a partial substitution of fine aggregate or cement in manufacturing mortar or concrete. The identification shows that several existing regulations in Indonesia explicitly and implicitly regulate the provisions of the circular economy concept. According to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry regulations, by-products with activity concentrations of less than 1 Bq/gram can be used as raw material, raw material substitution, energy source substitution, and other uses. Meanwhile, the by-products with activity concentrations of more than 1 Bq/gram are challenging as the provisions of by-products with a value of more than 1 Bq/gram are regulated in BAPETEN Regulation No. 16 of 2013 (currently in the revision stage). BAPETEN Regulation No. 16 of 2013 explains that by-products can be utilized for certain activities. However, the regulation must explain the terms and criteria for reusing by-products. Provisions of by-product processing, as stipulated in GR No. 52 of 2022, are limited to extracting nuclear minerals such as uranium and thorium. So, the meaning of processing in GR No. 52 of 2022 and provisions for reuse previously contained in BAPETEN Regulation No. 16 of 2013 have different meanings. Keywords: circular economy, by-product, tin, slag 2, radioactive substances, nuclear minerals

Selective Recovery of Tin from Electronic Waste Materials Completed with Carbothermic Reduction of Tin (IV) Oxide with Sodium Sulfite

A new approach for the thermal reduction of tin dioxide (SnO2) in the carbon/sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) system is demonstrated. The process of tin smelting was experimentally optimized by adjusting the smelting temperature and amounts of the chemical components used for the thermal reduction of SnO2. The numbers obtained are consistent with the thermodynamic characteristics of the system and molar fractions of reactants derived from the proposed mechanism of the SnO2 thermal reduction process. They reveal that the maximum yield of tin is obtained if masses of C, Na2SO3 and SnO2 are approximately in the ratio 1:2:3 and the temperature is set to 1050 °C. The key role in the suggested mechanism is the thermal decomposition of Na2SO3. It was deduced from the available experimental data that the produced sulfur dioxide undergoes carbothermic reduction to carbonyl sulfide—an intermediate product involved in the bulk reduction of SnO2. Replacing sodium sulfite with sodium sulfate, sodium sulfide and even elemental sulfur practically terminated the production of metallic tin. The kinetic analysis was focused on the determination of the reaction orders for the two crucial reactants involved in the smelting process.

MEMANFAATKAN ENERGI PADA SOLAR CELL UNTUK PARA NELAYAN PESISIR KEP. BANGKA BELITUNG

The Bangka Belitung Islands are an archipelagic area which is located at 104°50' to 109° East Longitude and 0°50' to 4°10' South Latitude, there are 6 districts and 1 municipality, and with a population of 1,473,165 people. Bangka Belitung is famous for its tin mines, almost 80% of its tin production comes from Bangka Belitung, apart from that, the marine sector also has a distribution role in regional PAD supplies. With the support of fishing boats, fishery products in 2022 will be 196,704 tons/year. To increase fishing capacity in the future, facilities are needed that can support more fishing capacity, apart from ships with larger capacity, they must also be accompanied by other facilities, namely in terms of energy, both for engines and for lighting. To develop renewable energy to support the maritime sector, a system is needed to supply energy, especially to fishing boats, to reduce fuel dependency. By using a clean and efficient energy-generating tool, namely by using a solar cell, with a capacity of 100 wp, a 12Volt/40 HA battery can produce 480 watts of power, so you can light 10 lights with a capacity of 15 watts for 5 hours, meaning you can save fuel by 20-30%.

Tionghoa and Environmental Conservation: Between Confucianism and Materialism

The Bangka Tionghoa are a group of Tionghoa ethnic descendants who were originally brought to Bangka Island to work as tin miners. The initial arrival of this ethnic group was devoted to increasing tin production on Bangka Island. This study aims to examine the relationship between ethnic Tionghoa and efforts to preserve the environment on Bangka Island. The research method used is a qualitative method with an intrinsic case study design. The number of informants in this study amounted to seven, with the technique of selecting informants by purposive sampling. Data analysis was carried out using the Miles Huberman technique, which included data collection, presentation, and interpretation, as well as drawing conclusions. The perspective used is the choice of rationality put forward by James S. Coleman. Coleman argued that in a social system, individuals play an important role in interventions to create social change. There are two main elements in Coleman’s ideas: actors and resources. The results of the study show that the Bangka Tionghoa ethnic group’s efforts to preserve the environment are based on a rational choice to protect natural resources. Resources that will continue to support their economic lives. The choice made by the Bangka Tionghoa ethnic group to preserve the environment was also influenced by the Confucian values passed down from their ancestors. The existence of supporting actors and resources has made the Bangka Tionghoa ethnic group, whose livelihood is mining, participate in efforts to preserve the environment in order to create sustainable economic resources.
 Keywords: Confucian values, Tionghoa ethnicity, rational choice

SYNTHESIS OF SODIUM STANNATE USING ALKALINE PRESSURE LEACHING PROCESS

Sodium stannate has numerous applications, including electroplating, tin alloy, catalysts, precursor to flame retardants, and also can be used as solid electrolytes and electrode materials in emerging battery systems. The primary method for producing sodium stannate typically involves the reaction between tin metal and sodium hydroxide solution. However, the procedure exhibited several limitations, such as high energy consumption, a long process flow for the production of metallic tin, as well as the release of potentially hazardous gases. Therefore, the present study focused on synthesizing sodium stannate from cassiterite minerals through alkaline pressure leaching, followed by crystallization. The main aim of this study was to examine the effect of various leaching process parameters, such as sodium hydroxide concentration, leaching temperature, and leaching time on the improvement of tin dissolution. The results showed that the alkaline pressure leaching process can successfully produce sodium stannate from the cassiterite mineral. The optimum parameters for alkaline pressure leaching to produce sodium stannate from cassiterite have been determined: temperature of 150°C, sodium hydroxide concentration of 4 mol/L, and duration of 240 minutes.

Indonesian National Tin Production Planning: Conceptual Framework

Tin mining in Indonesia has been regulated by Indonesia Law Number 3 of 2020. However, it has not been fully utilized in Indonesia despite the country's abundant tin deposit opportunities, its position as one of the significant producers of tin globally, and the impact on both the global tin stock and price. In light of this, a comprehensive literature review has been carried out; an initial conceptual framework and causal loop diagram of Indonesia’s national tin production planning have been produced to produce the concept of an instrument for setting national tin production quotas and the concept of formulating the distribution of national tin production levels that could be a reference for future researchers as well as Government of Indonesia in order to find the national tin production planning.

Antibacterial activity of tin-doped zinc oxide thin films deposited by laser ablation

The main purpose of this research is to assess the potential of doped zinc oxide (ZnO)-based materials in providing antibacterial activity to bioinert implants. Thus, the current study deals with the production and characterization of tin (Sn)-doped ZnO thin films grown by the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique. The coprecipitation method was applied for the synthesis of the primary powders, that were subsequently converted into targets. The latter were employed in several deposition experiments, for which the substrate temperature (room temperature and 400 °C) and oxygen pressure (100 and 700 mTorr) were varied in order to elucidate the influence of the processing parameters on the functional properties. Next, the paper covers a full examination of the compositional, structural, optical, and morphological features of ZnO intermediate or final samples. Moreover, the thin films were characterized in terms of antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (E. coli) gram-negative bacterium, and biocompatibility in the presence of mouse fibroblast cells. The results revealed a finer morphology for the doped target sintered at 1200 °C, consisting of grains several micrometers in size and a large proportion of interconnected pores, as well as the partial integration of Sn in the crystal lattice of ZnO, the rest of the dopant being trapped in a Sn-rich secondary phase (Zn2SnO4). The morphological assessment of the layers obtained by laser ablation revealed the pronounced effect of substrate temperature on the processes of nucleation and crystal growth, namely the occurrence of a denser packing of grains with significant higher dimension. Moreover, a higher oxygen pressure during deposition promoted an increased roughness for the deposited samples. The best antibacterial performance was achieved in the case of Sn-doped samples deposited at 400 °C, which demonstrates the beneficial contribution of the dopant ions.

Measuring the Satisfaction Index of Bumi Rasa Program Using Survey Method: A Case Study Damar Village, East Belitung Regency

Bumi Rasa is a community empowerment program conducted by PT. Timah Tbk Primary Tin Production Unit. This community empowerment is undertaken in the Damar village, East Belitung Regency. The program consists of several programs, namely catering, stationery, traditional cakes, cleaning services, and laundry. The Bumi Rasa program has a significant impact on the economic and environmental development of the village. Therefore, this study analyzes the satisfaction level of the program using the satisfaction index survey method. This study aims to measure the satisfaction level of the recipients of the community development program. The Bumi Rasa program received a satisfaction index of 3.06 from the community, which converted to a satisfaction index of 76.67, indicating that the community is very satisfied with the program

Alluvial tin mining by spray-suction borehole method: a case study on remaining alluvial tin reserves in Bangka Belitung, Indonesia

The area of the Bangka Belitung Islands, which is a potential area for alluvial tin deposits in Indonesia, has been affected by the destruction of tin reserves on the mainland due to rampant artisanal mining, which has left remnants of small-dimensional reserves. The remnants of these reserves can no longer be mined using the hydraulic mining of open pit method due to the small dimensions of the deposits. The hypothesis is that such sedimentary conditions can only be mined by the borehole method. This research aimed to design tools and perform test mining using the borehole method with a spray-suction mechanism. This research produced a novelty, namely, a method and parameters for alluvial tin deposits mining using borehole mining methods, such as the excavation capacity, excavation radius, mining recovery, and dilution factor. The benefit of this research is expected to provide an opportunity to increase the amount of onshore alluvial tin reserves to support tin production.

Recycling of Bangka tin slag used as fine aggregate in hot mix asphalt concrete

Bangka Tin Slag is a by-product of tin production on Bangka Island. Meanwhile, tin slag is a waste product from the tin smelting process. Every year, the tin smelting process in Bangka Island produces a large number of slags, while its utilization is still relatively small. On the other hand, the demand for aggregate in road construction has increased from time to time. Recycling tin slag used as fine aggregate in hot mix asphalt can maximize the utilization of tin slag and fill the aggregate demand in the construction. This research aims to substitute the fine aggregate with the tin slag in Asphalt Concrete - Binder Course mixture. In this study, the use of Bangka Tin Slag aggregate in asphalt mixture is 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. Based on the examination in this work, Bangka Tin Slag has a great potential to be used in hot mix asphalt concrete, especially in Asphalt Concrete - Binder Course mixture. The result shows the optimum asphalt contents in this mixture are between 6.25% and 6.5%.

Platinum-Nickel alloy supported on Nitrogen-Doped carbon modified titanium nitride nanotubes derived from metalorganic frameworks as an efficient catalyst for methanol electrooxidation

Synthesis of high-performance MOR electrocatalysts is of vital importance for the development of DMFCs as a viable technology for portable applications. Herein, we present a systematic study of a nanostructured Pt99Ni1/TiN NTs@NC catalyst for MOR, synthesized by a process concluding solvothermal, chelation, post-nitriding, and ethylene glycol reduction. The simultaneous production of TiN NTs@NC and Ni nanoclusters was obtained from the Ni/TiO2 NTs@PDA complexes derived from Ni-MOF and its pyrolysis under NH3 annealing process. The Ni/TiN NTs@NC substrate is in possession of a mesoporous nanotubes structure with unique sharp nanothorns on surface owing to the usage of Ni-MOF as precursor, resulting in the homogeneous distribution and intimate contact of Ni nanoclusters on the TiN NTs@NC substrate. The unique nanostructure, formation of open active diffusion channels and a large number of accessible active sites on supports provided an opportunity for nucleation and growth of PtNi alloys, leading to the improved metal-support interaction. The formation of PtNi alloys with small size and well-dispersion view not only improves the synergistic effect of electronics and strain but also weakens interaction between Pt and intermediate. Benefiting from above advantages, the Pt99Ni1/TiN NTs@NC exhibits superior MOR performance with enhanced catalytic activity, remarkable CO-resilient capacity, and excellent stability.

Prospects for the development of the deposits of the Yuzhno-Yansky tin ore district

A brief review of the mineral resource base of the native tin of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is given with a description of the economically important objects of the South Yansky tin ore region. The degree of assimilation of the mineral resource base of the tin in the Russian Federation is low. The undistributed fund has some high-grade ore deposits located within the region involved in the development. The most significant are the deposits of Burgachan, Ilintas, Alys-Khaya, which, together with prospecting ore occurrences, are considered as the basis for the creation of a large cluster for the extraction and production of tin. The involvement of these deposits in exploitation is hindered by their location in the specially protected natural area (SPNT) of Khotu. It is proposed to remove objects from the specially protected natural area.

Sn–Pb alloy processing for commercial tin production

The aim of the research is to develop an optimal method for Sn–Pb alloy processing to obtain a marketable product – high-grade tin O1–O3 (Sn  98.5 %). Laboratory studies were conducted on the refining of the Sn–Pb alloy with the following composition, wt.%: 53–60 Sn; 18–29 Pb, first by vacuum distillation (t = 1085÷1300 °C, P = 15÷100 Рa; τ = 3÷36 h) for As, Sb and Pb sublimation, then by reagent deposition with elemental sulfur and aluminum as part of the Al–Sn master alloy in the presence of NH4Cl for Cu, Fe and Sb separation. This resulted in obtaining a Sn-containing residue (yield ~60 %) of the following composition, wt.%: 92.39 Sn; 0.46 Pb that was subjected to reagent refining to obtain O3 grade tin (metal yield ~68 %) with the following composition, wt.%: 99.5 Sn; 0.009 Pb. It was found that it is feasible to carry out refining from a preliminarily decopperized Sn–Pb alloy to obtain a finished O1 grade product with a direct extraction of 90 %. A schematic diagram was developed and recommendations were formulated for the process regulations on Sn–Pb alloy processing to obtain commercial tin and recover resulting intermediate products and waste. A furnace with separate production of As, Sb, Pb condensates with the following composition, wt.%: 94.2–98.3 As; 5.1–14.5 Sb; 78.9–86.4 Pb, respectively, was chosen as a vacuum distillation unit. The economic effect of processing ~480 ton/year of Sn–Pb alloy (~50.8 % Sn) with the production of ~235 ton/year of O1–O3 grade tin is ~39 million rubles/year.

Electrolytic Processing of Pb-Bi Alloy

Metal bismuth is mainly produced as a by-product in the production of lead, tungsten, copper, silver, gold, tin and zinc. Approximately 90 % of all extracted bismuth is obtained from lead, copper and other concentrates. The main source of bismuth is lead concentrates obtained during the processing of lead, as well as lead-zinc and other polymetallic ores. During the processing of these concentrates, bismuth almost completely enters the rough lead, from which it is removed during its refining. The most common technologies for the recovery of bismuth from lead ingots are the Kroll-Betterton process and the Betts electrolytic process. During the electrolysis of the Bi-Pb alloy, the separation of three products has been established, they are anode and cathode alloys, as well as salt melt. The complexity of pyroelectrometallurgical processing of a bismuth-poor alloy with the production of rough bismuth in one stage is confirmed, which necessitates the use of two stages of electrolysis. At the first stage of electrolysis, the anode product‑1 (17.3–48.5 % of the initial Pb-Bi alloy) of the composition has been isolated,%: 16.6–48.4 Bi; 51.4–83.2 Pb; operational extraction,%: 92.2–96.6 Bi; 9.8–44.4 Pb; main phases Bi0,3Pb0,7 and Bi0,95Pb0,05. A six-fold bismuth enrichment is achieved in the anode product. At the second stage of electrolysis of the previously isolated anode product of the composition,%: 26.7 Bi; 73.1 Pb; 0.13 Cu; 0.08 Zn, the anode product‑2 (28.1 % of the enriched Pb-Bi alloy) of the composition has been separated,%: 93.6 Bi; 4.1 Pb; 0.086 Ag; 0.0066 As; 0.006 Sb; 0.0013 Cu; 0.001 Sn; 0.0014 Zn; stage extraction,%: 98.6 Bi; 1.6 Pb; main phase Bi0,95Pb0,05. As a result of pyroelectrometallurgical processing of a Pb-Bi alloy (~10 % Bi) with anode polarization in two stages, an anode product (8.7 % of the initial alloy) of the composition has been isolated,%: ≥ 93.6 Bi; 4.1 Pb; extraction from the initial alloy,%: 93.0 Bi; 0.4 Pb has been obtained. The following modes are recommended for pyroelectrometallurgical processing in two stages of Pb-Bi alloy: process temperature 550–600 °C; anode current density: 0.5 A/cm2 at the first stage; 0.2–0.3 A/cm2 at the second stage; cathode current density: 1.5 A/cm2 at the first stage; 1.0 A/cm2 at the second stage; operating voltage on the tub: at the first stage 8–12 V; at the second stage 5–8 V; the composition of the electrolyte at both stages,%: 7 NaCl; 35 KCl; 18 PbCl2; 40 ZnCl2; the amount of electrolyte output for processing: at the first stage – 10 % of the mass of the Pb-Bi alloy after alkaline treatment; at the second stage – 10 % of the mass of the anode product of the first stage

Cointegration Test and Projection of Total Rubber and Tin Production and Their Effect on The Environment in Province of Bangka Belitung Island

The cointegration test in this study aims to see the long-term balance relationship between the amount of rubber and tin production produced in the Province of Bangka Belitung Islands. This time series test uses historical data from 2002-2015. In addition to seeing the cointegration relationship, it will also be seen how the projection results are produced until 2025. This cointegration test results that the amount of rubber and tin production produced in the Province of Bangka Belitung Islands does not have a significant relationship between the two variables as evidenced by a probability value of 0.1366. The probability value that is greater than 5% of the alpha level means that these two variables are independent of each other and the projection results show that tin and rubber production has an upward trend from 2016-2025. The projected value of tin production is not as high as the projection value of rubber plantations with a percentage difference of 11.67%. It is also time for the community to develop the plantation sector and move away from the mining sector which has been undertaken in line with the increasing environmental damage that has been generated.

The extraction of tin (Sn) from primary tin ore deposits using wet chlorination

More than half of the world’s tin production is from secondary ore deposits. However, along with its depletion, PT Timah Tbk has explored and mined the primary deposits in Belitung, one that is expected to become tin’s new source. Tin was found liberated as cassiterite in the secondary deposits, while in the primary, it was associated with other minerals requiring more complex processing. Therefore, a suitable technology is needed to extract the tin from the primary ore deposits. This research aims to observe the extraction of tin from primary deposits (oxide and skarn ores) using HCl wet chlorination, observed at different temperature (60 – 90°C), HCl concentrations (10 – 50 % excess of stoichiometric amount), leaching time (60 – 300 minutes), and with or without the addition of oxidant (hydrogen peroxide, H2O2). The research found that the highest percentage of tin extraction from oxide and skarn ores was 92.32% and 97.28%, respectively. Both results were achieved at the same optimum condition: temperature of 60°C, 50% excess of HCl, 240 minutes of leaching time, and at two-fold excess of the stoichiometric amount of H2O2. It was concluded that oxidative wet chlorination could be used to recover tin from its primary ore deposits.

A Study of Buluh Tumbang Community, Belitung: The Social Movements Antitheses Analysis

Belitung Island has a long history in tin production and trading. The abundant tin content has attracted power from time to time to carry out exploitation. Although the victims are reportedly thinning tin, the news about the prediction of Thorium as a valuable mineral for energy production is expected to add to the history of mining in Belitung for thousands of years into the future. Several studies reveal that apart from having a positive impact, especially on the economy, mining also has a negative impact. Environmental degradation is getting worse every day and requires comprehensive handling. Although tin mining actually has a significant impact on the economic life of the community, mining activities do not guarantee a sustainable life for the community. The awareness that environmental damage is getting serious and worrying has not yet been collective-confrontational action directed at the responsible party. The common view of the people, government, and mining actors regarding economic dependence on tin affects the weakness of the framing process and the mobilization of reactions related to the problem of environmental damage. The contention of the people, government and mining actors took place in mutual compromise. This condition can threaten a threat to sustainable development. Contest analysis is needed to clarify the picture of the extent to which the dynamics of contestation can contribute to promoting sustainable development.

An Integrated Remote-Sensing and GIS Approach for Mapping Past Tin Mining Landscapes in Northwest Iberia

Northwest Iberia can be considered as one of the main areas where tin was exploited in antiquity. However, the location of ancient tin mining and metallurgy, their date and the intensity of tin production are still largely uncertain. The scale of mining activity and its socio-economical context have not been truly assessed, nor its evolution over time. With the present study, we intend to present an integrated, multiscale, multisensor and interdisciplinary methodology to tackle this problem. The integration of airborne LiDAR and historic aerial imagery has enabled us to identify and map ancient tin mining remains on the Tinto valley (Viana do Castelo, northern Portugal). The combination with historic mining documentation and literature review allowed us to confirm the impact of modern mining and define the best-preserved ancient mining areas for further archaeological research. After data processing and mapping, subsequent ground-truthing involved field survey and geological sampling that confirmed cassiterite exploitation as the key feature of the mining works. This non-invasive approach is of importance for informing future research and management of these landscapes.

From peaks to ports: Insights into tin provenance, production, and distribution from adapted applications of lead isotopic analysis of the Uluburun tin ingots

Lead isotope analysis (LIA) can be applied to tin provenance studies when both the U–Th–Pb characteristics of cassiterite and potential Pb contamination are taken into account. As cassiterite (SnO2) contains higher concentrations of U than Pb and negligible Th, radioactive decay increases 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb ratios in cassiterite over time. However, 208Pb/204Pb ratio retains its primary value and can be correlated with LIA databases. A majority of documented Bronze Age tin ingots from Europe have Pb in excess of the 5 ppm maximum that can be derived from Cenozoic to Late Paleozoic cassiterite. A minute mass of galena (PbS) in the ore concentrate is sufficient to mask the cassiterite-derived lead, as would the addition of any lead contaminant introduced in the smelting/casting process. If the galena is cogenetic with the cassiterite, then LIA will be unaffected. The inclusion of uranium-rich minerals in the tin ore concentrate is another potential source of excess lead. In this case, the additional Pb is uranogenic, and so 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb will reflect the age of the uranium minerals, but 208Pb/204Pb will retain its primary value. If the U-minerals are cogenetic or coeval with tin mineralization, then a Pb isochron age will indicate the age of the ore.Between 1984 and 1994, at least 117 ingots, or roughly one tonne, of tin was raised from the Late Bronze Age Uluburun shipwreck (ca. 1320 B.C.). Over half of the analyzed ingots from this wreck site have high Pb concentrations (>100 ppm), indicative of contamination from non-radiogenic lead associated with lead metal or galena. LIA indicates that the Pb originated from the Pb–Ag-rich Bolkardağ region of the south-central Taurus Mountains. A second group of approximately 28 tin ingots with lower Pb content (<100 ppm) contain additional uranogenic Pb but retain 208Pb/204Pb compositions that overlap with the ca. 300 Ma tin regions of Western Europe and Central Asia, with the most likely source being the Tienshan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.By compensating for previous uncertainty around the use of Pb isotopes for sourcing tin objects, it is now possible to contextualize the Uluburun tin ingots more securely within the metallurgical systems of the Central Taurus-Cilicia-Amanus axis. Recent scholarship has shown that tin production in the South-Central Taurus region had taken place at a scale not previously anticipated. Two parallel production systems appear to have been in place serving elite and common consumption networks via markedly different technologies. The South-Central Taurus and Cilician cities served as important components of maritime and terrestrial metal distribution around the eastern Mediterranean, providing a range of metals from a single geographical region.