Tin Oxide Research Articles

Exploring the Optoelectronic Properties and Solar Cell Performance of Cs2SnI6−xBrx Lead-Free Double Perovskites: Combined DFT and SCAPS Simulation

This paper presents detailed results regarding the physical behavior of Cs2SnI6−xBrx alloys for their potential use in photovoltaic applications. Numerical computations based on density functional theory (DFT) revealed that Br substitution at I sites significantly influenced the electronic structure of Cs2SnI6, resulting in an increase in bandgap values from 1.33 eV to 2.24 eV. Additionally, we analyzed the optical properties, including the absorption coefficient, which exhibited high values in the visible light region, highlighting the material’s excellent light-trapping abilities. Moreover, Cs2SnI6−xBrx compounds were employed as absorber materials in an fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) TiO2/Cs2SnI6/P3HT/Ag perovskite solar cell (PSC) to investigate its performance. The simulation process consisted of two interconnected steps: (i) the DFT calculations to derive the material properties and (ii) the SCAPS–1D (one-dimensional (1D) solar cell capacity simulator) simulation to model device performance. To ensure reliability, the SCAPS–1D simulation was calibrated against experimental data. Following this, Cs2SnI6−xBrx compound with various ratios of Br content, ranging from 0 to 6, was investigated to propose an efficient solar cell design. Furthermore, the cell structure was optimized, resulting in a development in the power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 0.47% to 3.07%.

Effects of Annealing Conditions on the Catalytic Performance of Anodized Tin Oxide for Electrochemical Carbon Dioxide Reduction

The electrochemical reduction of CO2 (CO2RR) to value-added products has garnered significant interest as a sustainable solution to mitigate CO2 emissions and harness renewable energy sources. Among CO2RR products, formic acid/formate (HCOOH/HCOO−) is particularly attractive due to its industrial relevance, high energy density, and potential candidate as a liquid hydrogen carrier. This study investigates the influence of the initial oxidation state of tin on CO2RR performance using nanostructured SnOx catalysts. A simple, quick, scalable, and cost-effective synthesis strategy was employed to fabricate SnOx catalysts with controlled oxidation states while maintaining consistent morphology and particle size. The catalysts were characterized using SEM, TEM, XRD, Raman, and XPS to correlate structure and surface properties with catalytic performance. Electrochemical measurements revealed that SnOx catalysts annealed in air at 525 °C exhibited the highest formate selectivity and current density, attributed to the optimized oxidation state and the presence of oxygen vacancies. Flow cell tests further demonstrated enhanced performance under practical conditions, achieving stable formate production with high faradaic efficiency over prolonged operation. These findings highlight the critical role of tin oxidation states and surface defects in tuning CO2RR performance, offering valuable insights for the design of efficient catalysts for CO2 electroreduction to formate.

Achieving 32.9% efficiency in Pb-Based quantum dot solar cells via SCAPS-1D simulation optimization

Abstract This study presents a comprehensive investigation and in-depth analysis of the optimization of Pb-based quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs), concentrating on the influences of doping concentration, absorber layer thickness, defect density, temperature, and resistive elements. We systematically examined three absorber materials: lead sulfide (PbS), tetrabutylammonium iodide-treated PbS (PbS-TBAI), and lead selenide (PbSe) quantum dots (QDs). Optimal doping concentrations of 1 × 10 17 cm−3 for PbS and 1 × 10 22 cm−3 for both PbS-TBAI and PbSe were identified. Our findings reveal that precise control of these parameters can significantly enhance power conversion efficiency (PCE), achieving values of 24.6%, 28%, and 26.2% for PbS, PbS-TBAI, and PbSe, respectively. Additionally, we investigated the impact of absorber layer thickness on device performance. We discovered that a 1 µm thickness for PbS yields a maximum PCE of 32.9% due to balanced photon absorption and reduced Shockley–Read–Hall recombination. Conversely, PbSe’s performance declined with increased thickness because of its layer-dependent bandgap. We found that lower defect densities ( 1 × 10 14 cm−3) critically improve PCE and fill factor across all materials. The temperature-dependent studies demonstrated that PbS-TBAI exhibits remarkable resilience, maintaining efficiency under thermal stress due to effective surface passivation. Analyses of series and shunt resistances highlighted the importance of minimizing internal resistances to optimize device performance. The proposed device structure comprises a fluorine-doped tin oxide front contact layer, a silver sulfide (Ag2S) electron transport layer, the QD absorber layer (PbS, PbS-TBAI, or PbSe), and copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) hole transport layer. Utilizing cascade band alignment, we achieved a record PCE of 32.9%. This research highlights the significant potential of Pb-based QDSCs for achieving high efficiencies through promising material and structural optimization, positioning them as competitive candidates for next-generation solar technologies. The results provide a valuable understanding of designing high-performance QDSCs, paving the way for their integration into sustainable energy solutions.

Evaluation of Physicochemical Properties of Cadmium Oxide (CdO)-Incorporated Indium–Tin Oxide (ITO) Nanoparticles for Photocatalysis

This study investigates the structural, optical, and photocatalytic properties of cadmium oxide (CdO) nanoparticles (NPs) and indium–tin oxide (ITO)-doped CdO NPs. The synthesis of CdO NPs and ITO NPs was accomplished through the co-precipitation method. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis indicates that pure CdO NPs exhibit agglomerated structures, whereas ITO doping introduces porosity and roughness, thereby improving particle dispersion and facilitating electron transport. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) corroborates the successful incorporation of tin (Sn) and indium (In) within indium–tin oxide (ITO)-doped cadmium oxide (CdO) nanoparticles (NPs) in addition to cadmium (Cd) and oxygen (O). X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis demonstrates that an increase in ITO doping results in a reduction of the crystallite size, decreasing from 23.43 nm for pure CdO to 18.42 nm at a 10% doping concentration, which can be attributed to lattice distortion. Simultaneously, the band gap exhibits a narrowing from 2.92 eV to 2.52 eV, achieving an optimal value at 10% ITO doping before experiencing a slight increase at higher doping concentrations. This tuneable band gap improves light absorption, which is crucial for photocatalysis. The photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B (RhB) highlights the superior efficiency of ITO-doped CdO nanoparticles, achieving a remarkable 94.68% degradation under sunlight within 120 min, up 81.01%, significantly surpassing the performance of pure CdO. The optimal RhB concentration for achieving maximum degradation was determined to be 5 mg/L. This enhanced catalytic activity demonstrates the effectiveness of ITO-doped CdO NPs under both UV and visible light, showcasing their potential for efficient pollutant degradation in sunlight-driven applications.

Fabrication, characterization and performance analysis of sol–gel dip coated SnO2 thin film

Transparent conducting oxide (TCO) is widely utilized in various fields of electronics and optoelectronics, including touch-screen technology, thin-film solar cells, dye-synthesized solar cells (DSSC), and more. Yet, the costs associated with TCO films can be substantial, for instance, roughly 40% of the total expenses of the dye-synthesized solar cells are due to the use of this component. Therefore, fabricating TCO using Tin oxide (SnO2) using the sol–gel dip coating method is the central theme of this study. Where emphasis has been given to attaining high performance using locally available low-cost materials in Bangladesh. Moreover, to find out the electrical and optical properties of the fabricated SnO2 thin film UV spectroscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), four-point probe measurement, and thickness measurement have been done. In addition, uniformity and cracks in the crystals, and morphological images have been observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A thin layer with a thickness of 144 nm and a resistivity of 2.27 Ω-cm has been created after 16 times dipping in sol–gel solution. The findings indicate that the thin films have an average transmittance of roughly 70% in the 300–1200 nm wavelength range. Furthermore, the outcome also reveals that the thin films’ average band gap is approximately 3.533 eV. The experimentally obtained data have been included in the simulation for performance analysis. As demonstrated by the simulation, by using this TCO, a maximum efficiency of 17.525% may be attained in a CdTe solar cell. If manufactured correctly, SnO2 TCO could potentially rival traditional FTO or ITO based TCOs in solar cell research.

Epitaxial Cu2O Thin Films Deposited from Solution: the Enabling Role of Cu Diffusion into the GaAs Substrate.

Cuprous oxide (Cu2O) thin films were chemically deposited from a solution onto GaAs(100) and (111) substrates using a simple three-component solution at near-ambient temperatures (10-60 °C). Interestingly, a similar deposition onto various other substrates including Si(100), Si(111), glass, fluorine-doped tin oxide, InP, and quartz resulted in no film formation. Films deposited on both GaAs(100) and (111) were found alongside substantial etching of the substrates. The etching of GaAs(100) was uneven, resulting in pyramid-like vacancies, while for GaAs(111), the etching was more even and resulted in a flat interface. X-ray diffraction measurements indicated highly preferential (110) growth of Cu2O regardless of GaAs substrate orientation, while TEM and a selected area of electron diffraction pointed out epitaxial growth on both substrates. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed the diffusion of copper ions into the GaAs up to depths of 20 nm and the formation of intermediate phases at the interface. Raman spectroscopy indicated high structural quality of the films and showed good agreement with TEM and XRD results and Raman shifts corresponding to Cu2O, with no frequencies typical of CuO. The GaAs substrate appears to play a critical and unusual role in the deposition of Cu2O thin films on GaAs, which allows for growth of Cu2O in a previously unreported mechanism.

Oxygen-modulated photoresponse in nickel oxide thin films for wide band gap photodetector application

Metal oxides, due to their wide band gap, are well suited for use in photodetectors as the active light-absorbing layer. While there have been extensive studies on n-type oxides, such as tungsten oxide and zinc oxide, there is relatively little work on the use of p-type oxides, such as nickel oxide (NiO), for photodetectors. Using these p-type oxides along with n-type conducting oxides to form heterojunctions can improve the detection capabilities by efficient separation of charge carriers. In this work, the photoresponse of a p-type NiO thin film, grown by room temperature reactive magnetron sputtering from a pure nickel target onto a conducting n-type indium-doped tin oxide (ITO) substrate, is investigated. Different ratios of oxygen to argon (10/45, 15/45, and 20/45) during sputtering are investigated, and the effect of oxygen concentration on the optical properties of the NiO film is studied, which helps in modulating the photoresponse of the developed detector. The O2/Ar ratio, with a value of 15/45, is found to perform better among the three ratios. For the corresponding photodetector, the current under illumination, is found to be nearly three orders of magnitude higher than the dark current, even at a very low applied voltage of 0.1 V. The calculated responsivity (at 0.012 A/W) is found to be the best among all three values. The device also has an excellent transient current response with a rise time of 0.5 s and a decay time of 1.4 s, which is the fastest transient behavior among all three ratio-based devices. The work paves the way for using metal oxide-based heterojunctions as wide band gap photodetectors.

Electrically tunable InAs/GaAs QD in a nanocavity with a transfer-printed ITO electrode

We demonstrate the electrical tuning of InAs/GaAs quantum dots (QDs) embedded in a photonic-crystal (PhC) cavity with transparent indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes hybrid-integrated by transfer printing. The design includes spacer layers between the cavity and the electrodes to reduce absorption loss while still maintaining a significant bias field. The bottom electrode, PhC cavity, and top electrode were fabricated independently and integrated by transfer printing, and an electrical connection was made by inkjet printing, both implemented locally without affecting the entire chip. We observed the electrical tuning of QD emissions into the cavity mode and Purcell enhancement. This work paves the way for utilizing multiple hybrid-integrated QDs on the same chip.

Synergistic Improvement of Narrow Bandgap PbS Quantum Dot Solar Cells through Surface Ligand Engineering, Near-Infrared Spectral Matching, and Enhanced Electrode Transparency.

The tunability of the energy bandgap in the near-infrared (NIR) range uniquely positions colloidal lead sulfide (PbS) quantum dots (QDs) as a versatile material to enhance the performance of existing perovskite and silicon solar cells in tandem architectures. The desired narrow bandgap (NBG) PbS QDs exhibit polar (111) and nonpolar (100) terminal facets, making effective surface passivation through ligand engineering highly challenging. Despite recent breakthroughs in surface ligand engineering, NBG PbS QDs suffer from uncontrolled agglomeration in solid films, leading to increased energy disorder and trap formation. The limited NIR transparency of commonly used indium-doped tin oxide (ITO) electrodes and inadequate NIR radiation from commercially available solar simulators further compromise the true performance of NBG PbS QDs in solar cells. Here, we employ a hybrid ligand strategy based on inorganic cadmium halide and organic thiol molecules, leading to the partial substitution of surface Pb atoms with Cd heteroatoms. This hybrid ligand strategy substantially reduces undesired QD fusion in solid films, improving the photophysical and electronic properties. By modulating the thickness of the ITO layer and managing refraction loss through a ZnO layer coating, we improved NIR transparency to above 80%. We combine an NIR light source with a solar simulator to achieve near-ideal spectral matching for a broader range with standard AM1.5G illumination. Enhancements in surface passivation of QDs, improvements in NIR transparency of electrodes, and a spectral matched light source setup help us achieve solar cell power conversion efficiencies of 12.4%, 4.48%, and 1.37% under AM 1.5G, perovskite filter, and silicon filter illuminations, respectively. A record open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.54 V and short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 38.5 mA/cm2 are achieved under AM 1.5G illumination. We attribute these advancements in photovoltaic parameters to the reduction in Urbach tail states and intermediate trap density originating from superior surface passivation of QDs.

Thiazolidinone-Based Electron-Collecting Monolayers for n-i-p Perovskite Solar Cells.

The development of efficient electron-collecting monolayer materials is desired to lower manufacturing costs and improve the performance of regular (negative-intrinsic-positive, n-i-p) type perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Here, we designed and synthesized four electron-collecting monolayer materials based on thiazolidinone skeletons, with different lowest-unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) levels (rhodanine or thiazolidinedione) and different anchoring groups to the transparent electrode (phosphonic acid or carboxylic acid). These molecules, when adsorbed on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates, lower the work function of ITO, decreasing the energy barrier for electron extraction at the ITO/perovskite interface and improving the device performance. The shift of work function, rather than the LUMO levels of the molecules themselves, was found to be correlated with the performance of the perovskite solar cells.

CeO2/MWCNT/Carbon Black Modified Electrode for Improving the Performance of Electrochemical Nitrite Sensor

Abstract CeO2 was synthesized and combined with different types of carbon nanomaterials such as carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (c-MWCNT) and carbon black (CB) for electrochemical detection of nitrite. The composite (c-MWCNT/CB/CeO2) showed the best sensing performance. It was characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscpy, Brunnauer-Emmett-Teller, and Raman spectroscopy. The electrochemical performance of the c-MWCNT/CB/CeO2 modified fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass and glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was studied. The optimized c-MWCNT/CB/CeO2/FTO sensor exhibited a linear range of 0.01-13 mM, a sensitivity of 231.4 μA·mM-1·cm-2, and a detection limit of 0.59 μM, while the c-MWCNT/CB/CeO2/GCE sensor showed a linear range of 0.01-33 mM, a sensitivity of 340.5 μA·mM-1·cm-2, and a detection limit of 0.45 μM. In addition, the sensor had good stability, reproducibility and selectivity. More importantly, it was successfully used for nitrite detection in green tea samples, indicating its feasibility.

Oxygen-dependent Photoluminescence and Electrical Conductance of Zinc Tin Oxide (ZTO): A Modified Stern-Volmer Description.

Zinc tin oxide (ZTO) is investigated as a photoluminescent sensor for oxygen (O2); chemisorbed oxygen quenches the luminescence intensity. At the same time, ZTO is also studied as a resistive sensor; being an n-type semiconductor, its electrical conductance decreases by adsorption of oxygen. Both phenomena can be exploited for quantitative O2 sensing. The respective sensor responses can be described by the same modified Stern-Volmer model that distinguishes between accessible and non-accessible luminescence centers or charge carriers, respectively. The impact of the temperature is studied in the range from room temperature up to 150 °C.

Organic Crosslinked Tin Oxide Mitigating Buried Interface Defects for Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells

AbstractTin dioxide (SnO2) stands as a promising material for the electron transport layer (ETL) in perovskite solar cells (PSCs) attributed to its superlative optoelectronic properties. The attainment of superior power conversion efficiency hinges critically on the preparation of high‐quality SnO2 thin films. However, conventional nanoparticle SnO2 colloids often suffer from inherent issues such as numerous oxygen vacancy defects and film non‐uniformity. In this study, we report a strategy to homogenize SnO2 with reduced defects for high‐performance PSCs. The commercial SnO2 colloid is modulated with bisphenol S (BPS) crosslinking to achieve a better annealing intermediate state. The phenolic hydroxyl groups on BPS bond with the hydroxyl groups on the SnO2 surface, passivating defects as well as promoting superb regularity of the films by forming a network of the SnO2 nanoparticles. Additionally, the sulfone groups on BPS coordinate with Pb2+, regulating the crystallization of PbI2 and FAPbI3, which leads to better interface contact at the buried interface. The FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells based on BPS‐crosslinked SnO2 layers achieved a champion efficiency of 24.87 % and retained 95 % of their initial PCE after 1000 hours of continuous light soaking under N2 atmosphere.

Influence of Proton Irradiation on Thin Films of AZO and ITO Transparent Conductive Oxides—Simulation of Space Environment

Transparent conductive oxides are essential materials for many optoelectronic applications. For new devices for aerospace and space applications, it is crucial to know how they respond to the space environment. The most important issue in commonly used low-Earth orbits is proton radiation. This study examines the effects of high-energy proton irradiation (226.5 MeV) on thin films of aluminium-doped zinc oxide (AZO) and indium tin oxide (ITO). We use X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy observations to see the changes in the structure and microstructure of the films. The optical properties and homogeneity of the materials are determined by spectrophotometry and spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE). Analysis of the chemical states of the elements with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) gives insight into what proton irradiation changes at the surface of the oxides. All measurements show that ITO is less influenced than AZO. The proton energy and fluence used in this study simulate about a hundred years in low Earth orbit. This research demonstrates that both transparent conductive oxide thin films can function under simulated space conditions, with ITO showing superior resilience. The ITO film was more homogenous in terms of the total thickness measured with SE, had fewer defects and adsorbates present on the surface, as XPS analysis proved, and did not show a difference after irradiation regarding its optical properties, transmission, refractive index, or extinction coefficient.

Self-Powered, Flexible, Transparent Tactile Sensor Integrating Sliding and Proximity Sensing

Tactile sensing is currently a research hotspot in the fields of intelligent perception and robotics. The method of converting external stimuli into electrical signals for sensing is a very effective strategy. Herein, we proposed a self-powered, flexible, transparent tactile sensor integrating sliding and proximity sensing (SFTTS). The principle of electrostatic induction and contact electrification is used to achieve tactile response when external objects approach and slide. Experiments show that the material type, speed, and pressure of the perceived object can cause the changes of the electrical signal. In addition, fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) is used as the contact electrification layer, and indium tin oxide (ITO) is used as the electrostatic induction electrode to achieve transparency and flexibility of the entire device. By utilizing the transparency characteristics of this sensor to integrate with optical cameras, it is possible to achieve integrated perception of tactile and visual senses. This has great advantages for applications in the field of intelligent perception and is expected to be integrated with different types of optical sensors in the future to achieve multimodal intelligent perception and sensing technology, which will contribute to the intelligence and integration of robot sensing.

Modification of Electrons Transport Layer and Perovskite Material to Improve the Current Density of Organic-Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cell

Utilizing the sol–gel technique, we deposited 5% Mo-doped MAPbI2Br films onto fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)-glass substrates. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the cubic structure of all films, with the 5% Mo-doped film exhibiting a notably large grain size of 32.34[Formula: see text]nm. UV–visible spectroscopy further validated these findings, indicating a reduced band-gap energy of 1.94[Formula: see text]eV and a heightened refractive index of 2.64 and an extinction coefficient of 2.21 in the 5% Mo-doped film. The manipulation of the conduction and valence band edges facilitated enhanced charge transport between the layers. In order to increase the current density, a layer of SnO2 has been added near the electron transport layer (ETL). XRD and Raman spectra show the formation of crystalline SnO2. The absorption spectra show the high transmittance in the visible region, which is good for ETL. Solar cells based on these films were constructed with the configuration glass FTO/TiO2/SnO2/Mo-MAPbI2Br/spiro-OMeTAD/Au. The bilayer composed of 5% Mo-MAPbI2Br and a SnO2 layer demonstrated excellent performance, characterized by a current density of 11.88[Formula: see text]mA/cm2, an open circuit voltage of 1.07[Formula: see text]V, a fill-factor of 0.83, and an efficiency of 10.03%. The improvement in performance may be credited to the increased speed of electron transport and decreased likelihood of recombination at the interface between TiO2, SnO2, and perovskite layers in the bilayer structure.

Simultaneous tri-parameter surface plasmon resonance photonic crystal fiber sensor

Abstract This study presents a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) integrated with a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor that utilizes two orthogonal polarization core modes for sensing. The PCF features a thin indium tin oxide (ITO) layer on the inner channel and lower polished surface, an upper polished surface with a thin gold film, and an inner channel filled with magnetic fluid (MF) for magnetic field detection. Additionally, a temperature and refractive index sensitive material polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is placed on the lower polished surface, while the upper polished surface is designed for refractive index measurement. This multifunctional PCF-SPR sensor offers a compact and efficient solution for simultaneous detection of magnetic fields, temperature, and refractive index variations. The highest magnetic field sensitivity in the range of 0~12Oe is 11.1nm/Oe, the highest temperature sensitivity in the range of 20~400℃ is -0.5nm/℃, and the highest refractive index sensitivity in the range of 1.17~1.35μm is 1000nm/RIU. The designed sensor effectively mitigates the cross-sensitivity issues during concurrent measurements of the magnetic field, temperature, and refractive index simultaneously, presenting significant potential for applications in complex environment, including mineral resource exploration, geological and environmental assessments.

An Energy Level Alignment Study of 2PACz Molecule on Perovskite Device‐Related Interfaces by Vacuum Deposition

Self‐assembling molecules (SAM) have been widely used in inverted perovskite solar cells (PSC) as a hole transfer layer due to nearly lossless charge transfer giving excellent device performance. However, the energy level alignment between SAM‐ and PSC‐related interfaces has not been systematically studied. Herein, the 2PACz, a typical SAM with the largest dipole moment, is chosen as the model system and is studied by vacuum deposition. It is found that the energy level alignment is determined by the orientation of 2PACz molecules on a different substrate. The molecules are lying down on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite and giving nearly zero interface dipole. On solvent‐cleaned and plasma‐treated indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates, the SAM is vertically assembled with 0.22 and 0.13 eV work function increases, respectively. However, on sputtered ITO, SAM is assembled with upside down orientation, with 0.51 eV work function decrease. The change of orientation is due to strong interaction between oxygen vacancies in ITO substrate and carbazole head group of 2PACz. On perovskite film, SAM also shows a slightly upward orientation with additional passivation of free MA+ ions. Herein, it is confirmed that the energy level alignment of SAM plays an important role in hole extraction.

Damp‐Heat–Induced Degradation of Lightweight Silicon Heterojunction Solar Modules With Different Transparent Conductive Oxide Layers

ABSTRACTLightweight photovoltaic applications are essential for diversifying the solar energy supply. This opens up vast new scenarios for solar modules and significantly boosts the capacity of renewable energy. To ensure high efficiency and stability of the solar modules, several challenges need to be overcome. Degradation due to elevated temperature and/or humidity is a critical concern for silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar modules. Here, we investigated the stability and degradation mechanism of encapsulated cells with lightweight configurations where the cells are based on three different types of transparent‐conductive oxide (TCO): indium tin oxide (ITO), aluminum‐doped zinc oxide (AZO), and a combination of ITO/AZO/ITO under humid and thermal environmental conditions. A damp heat (DH) test at a temperature of 85°C and relative humidity (RH) of 85% was performed on lightweight modules for 1000 h. Our results show that AZO is the most susceptible to DH degradation. The AZO film was damaged by the combined effects of moisture ingress and delamination of the interconnection foil, resulting in a decrease in the conductivity of the AZO film, leading to a dramatic increase in Rs and a decrease in FF of the modules. Consequently, moisture has a greater chance of percolating through the damaged AZO layer into the a‐Si:H passivation layer, causing passivation degradation, which leads to an increase in recombination, resulting in a decrease in Voc of the modules. In particular, after capping the AZO film with an ITO film, the efficiency loss of the ITO/AZO/ITO module was significantly reduced. This suggests that the ITO film could be a promising protective capping layer for the AZO‐based solar cells.

Sacrificial Layer for Sintering Enhancements of Ceramic, Semiconductor, and Metal Films: A Universal Strategy.

The manufacturing of thin films through selective laser sintering of micro/nanoparticles is an emerging technology that has been developing rapidly over the last two decades owing to its digitization, efficiency, and good adaptability to various materials. However, high-quality laser sintering of different materials remains a challenge: ceramic particles are difficult to be sintered due to low absorbance; metallic particles are prone to oxidation; semiconductor particles are difficult to process for performance enhancement due to high stress. In this work, a new approach is proposed that employs an additional Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) sacrificial layer to assist laser sintering of different functional materials, which detaches after sintering without contaminating the target material. As a laser absorber, the ITO layer can raise the sintering temperature up to 2950 K, resulting in well coarsening of ceramic grains. As an oxygen barrier, the ITO layer maintains the oxidation level of the metal die below 25%. As a temperature homogenizer, the ITO layer delays the cracking and improves the performance of the semiconductor material, which in turn increases its Seebeck factor to 1.4-fold. Therefore, the ITO sacrificial layer is a material-friendly, purity-neutral laser sintering strategy, which supports laser sintering of multi-materials and high-performance thin-film devices.