Strain Time Histories Research Articles

Recursive Bayesian estimation of wind load on a monopile-supported offshore wind turbine using output-only measurements

Offshore wind turbine structures experience combined wind and wave loading during their lifetime, and the cyclic characteristics of these loads significantly impact the fatigue life of the support structure. Continuous monitoring of stress-related quantities, such as strain time histories at hotspot locations of the structure, can help to estimate the fatigue life. However, sparse measurements from the substructure necessitate using a digital twin as a tool for structural health monitoring by creating a virtual model. This virtual model relies on real-time input loads for virtual sensing and stress-related quantities prediction. However, the exact loading on these structural systems is often unknown or estimated with considerable uncertainty. This paper implements a recursive window-based Bayesian estimator for input load estimation and virtual sensing of acceleration and strain time history at unmeasured critical locations using output-only measurements. The estimator is numerically and experimentally validated in the context of input load estimation for an offshore wind turbine, and the results are compared with a traditional augmented Kalman filter and a linear regression approach for the quasi-static component of loading. The method is first demonstrated through a numerical study using a finite element model of a 6 MW offshore wind turbine, where input wind load time histories are accurately estimated. Then, the framework is applied to the real data measured from an offshore wind turbine in the North Sea. The study demonstrates the window-based Bayesian input estimator as a promising tool for the digital twinning of offshore wind turbines, demonstrating superior accuracy in input load estimations and full response predictions compared to the augmented Kalman filter and linear regression methods without the constraint of collocated measurements at input load locations.

Prediction of fatigue life of a bolted joint in railway steel arch bridge using multiaxial fatigue criteria

Fatigue represents a critical condition for infrastructure subjected to repeated cyclic loads, such as steel railway bridges. The literature offers several methods to estimate fatigue life, consisting of three main phases: cycle counting, fatigue damage criterion, and damage accumulation criterion. Applying S–N curves might not be conservative in the case of railway bridges subjected to traffic because the stress-time history is complex and cannot be reduced to a sinusoidal history. Additionally, the presence of a multiaxial stress state must be considered. Therefore, this work compares eight multiaxial fatigue damage criteria for evaluating fatigue life in a scenario between high and low-cycle fatigue. Specifically, the authors considered four low-cycle fatigue criteria, namely Smith–Watson–Topper (SWT), Kandil, Brown and Miller (KBM), Glinka, Fatemi and Socie (FS), and four high-cycle fatigue criteria, Crossland, Basquin and the methods recommended by Eurocode 3 and British Standard. The rainflow counting method in ASTM E1049-85 (2011) and Miner’s rule for damage accumulation were used. The Polcevera railway steel bridge was selected as a case study. A 3D numerical model was developed for this purpose using Midas Civil software, taking into account the material non-linearity of the bridge’s elements. Once the area with the highest stress concentration was identified, a detailed analysis was conducted to estimate the stress and strain time histories induced by train traffic. A sensitivity analysis was conducted after critically comparing the eight methods for predicting fatigue life to assess the impact of traffic parameters, train velocity, axle load, and convoy length on fatigue life. It has been found that the criteria considering axial stress tend to overestimate the number of fatigue cycles to failure compared to the criteria, including the effect of shear stress components.

Local structural behaviour of the outer containment of an NPP against hard missile impact

An aircraft crash and missile impact on a nuclear containment structure is currently described as an event beyond design basis; however, soon, it will be qualified as a primary design criterion. In the present study, the structural and dynamic behaviour of the outer containment of a nuclear power plant (NPP) has been studied to substantiate its structural integrity against the rigid missile impact. Scaled experiments (at a 1:4 and 1:3 ratio with respect to shell thickness) have been performed to study the localized behaviour of the containment structure against 10 and 20-kg rigid steel projectiles. The reinforced cement concrete (RCC) targets of thicknesses 150 and 200 mm have been subjected to impact at incidence velocity close to the landing and taking of velocity of the aircraft. The flexural reinforcement ratio was considered 1.25 % for a 150 mm thick target and 1.53 % for a 200 mm thick target. The effect of shear reinforcement on the penetration and perforation resistance has been studied for a 200 mm thick RCC target. A detailed post-test examination was conducted to evaluate the localized physical damage characteristics such as spalling and scabbing of concrete, penetration, perforation, crack propagation, and the damage induced in both flexural and shear reinforcements. The mechanics of deformation and failure modes of the target were investigated under varying incidence velocities, 60–115 m/s. The reinforcement characteristics under dynamic loading, such as strain time histories, strain rate sensitivity, and dynamic material properties, were also investigated. The presence of transverse reinforcement in 200 mm thick targets improved the ballistic performance by 12.50 %. Furthermore, the transverse reinforcement also played a crucial role in restricting the bending of the rear face flexural reinforcement and controlling the rear face damage propagation.

Cyclic Mechanism Affects Lumbar Spine Creep Response.

This study aims to explore how cyclic loading influences creep response in the lumbar spine under combined flexion-compression loading. Ten porcine functional spinal units (FSUs) were mechanically tested in cyclic or static combined flexion-compression loading. Creep response between loading regimes was compared using strain-time histories and linear regression. High-resolution computed tomography (µCT) visualized damage to FSUs. Statistical methods, ANCOVA and ANOVA, assessed differences in behavior between loading regimes. Cyclic and static loading regimes exhibited distinct creep response patterns and biphasic response. ANCOVA and ANOVA analyses revealed significant differences in slopes of creep behavior in both linear phases. Cyclic tests consistently showed endplate fractures in µCT imaging. The study reveals statistically significant differences in creep response between cyclic and static loading regimes in porcine lumbar spinal units under combined flexion-compression loading. The observed biphasic behavior suggests distinct phases of tissue response, indicating potential shifts in load transfer mechanisms. Endplate fractures in cyclic tests suggest increased injury risk compared to static loading. These findings underscore the importance of considering loading conditions in computational models and designing preventive measures for occupations involving repetitive spinal loading.

Element-wise parallel deep learning for structural distributed damage diagnosis by leveraging physical properties of long-gauge static strain transmissibility under moving loads

The Transmissibility Function (TF) has gained considerable interest in structural damage detection because of its relatively high sensitivity to damage and robustness to excitation. This study proposed a distributed damage diagnosis method for beam-like structures based on a long-gauge static strain TF defined as the ratio of the Fourier transform of static strain response under moving loads from a target long-gauge sensor to that from the reference sensor. It has been discovered that each long-gauge static strain TF is independent of moving loads, making it an ideal damage indicator. It exhibits direct proportionality to the ratio of bending stiffness between the two measured zones covered by the target and reference long-gauge strain sensors while being unaffected by the stiffness of any other zones not covered by these two sensors. Moreover, the TF at zero frequency was proved to be equivalent to the ratio of static strain time history areas, relying solely on the stiffness of the covered zones. Leveraged by the physical properties of long-gauge static strain TF, an element-wise parallel deep neural network architecture was developed to decompose damage diagnosis into independent sub-tasks on the element level, utilizing a variational autoencoder (VAE) in the Bayesian inference framework for extracting features from the long-gauge strain TF and a regressor for mapping the features to elemental stiffness reduction. The divide-and-conquer strategy and element-wise parallel learning architecture allow for a significant reduction in the number of labeled training samples generated based on the updated numerical baseline model as it only requires simulated scenarios involving a single damage element. The efficiency and robustness of the proposed method were demonstrated through a numerical simply supported beam and a laboratory experiment on a two-span bridge.

Dynamic shear behavior of CFRP-concrete interface: Test and 3D mesoscale numerical simulation

The study on dynamic shear behavior of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)-concrete interface is of great significance for the performance evaluation and design of FRP externally strengthened concrete structures. Firstly, the quasi-static and dynamic single shear test on the interfacial shear behavior between carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheet and concrete substrate was carried out. The corresponding failure modes of CFRP-concrete interface, CFRP strain-time histories, load-displacement curves, and interfacial shear stress-slip relationships under loading rates of 8.33 × 10−6–10 m·s−1 were obtained. It was indicated that the dynamic interfacial shear behaviors, i.e., interfacial failure mode, debonding load, interfacial shear stress, etc., were sensitive to loading rates. Then, a 3D mesoscale modeling approach of concrete with random shaped, sized, and spatially distributed convex polyhedron aggregates was proposed, in which the volume fraction of aggregates was adjustable within the range of 0–50 % through gravitational drop and size scaling of aggregates. Furthermore, based on the established 3D mesoscale concrete model and the zero-thickness cohesive elements for adhesive layer, numerical simulations for FPR-concrete interfacial shear behavior were conducted and validated by comparing with the present and existing quasit-static and dynamic single shear tests. The experimental phenomenon of the failure location transferring from concrete substrate to adhesive layer at high loading rates was numerically reproduced. Finally, the influences of strain rate enhancing effects of aggregates and mortar on the interfacial failure modes were discussed. It was revealed that the failure location transferring from the concrete substrate to the adhesive layer was significantly affected by the strength enhancement of mortar and aggregates with the loading rate increasing.

Data‐driven variational method for discrepancy modeling: Dynamics with small‐strain nonlinear elasticity and viscoelasticity

AbstractThe effective inclusion of a priori knowledge when embedding known data in physics‐based models of dynamical systems can ensure that the reconstructed model respects physical principles, while simultaneously improving the accuracy of the solution in the previously unseen regions of state space. This paper presents a physics‐constrained data‐driven discrepancy modeling method that variationally embeds known data in the modeling framework. The hierarchical structure of the method yields fine scale variational equations that facilitate the derivation of residuals which are comprised of the first‐principles theory and sensor‐based data from the dynamical system. The embedding of the sensor data via residual terms leads to discrepancy‐informed closure models that yield a method which is driven not only by boundary and initial conditions, but also by measurements that are taken at only a few observation points in the target system. Specifically, the data‐embedding term serves as residual‐based least‐squares loss function, thus retaining variational consistency. Another important relation arises from the interpretation of the stabilization tensor as a kernel function, thereby incorporating a priori knowledge of the problem and adding computational intelligence to the modeling framework. Numerical test cases show that when known data is taken into account, the data driven variational (DDV) method can correctly predict the system response in the presence of several types of discrepancies. Specifically, the damped solution and correct energy time histories are recovered by including known data in the undamped situation. Morlet wavelet analyses reveal that the surrogate problem with embedded data recovers the fundamental frequency band of the target system. The enhanced stability and accuracy of the DDV method is manifested via reconstructed displacement and velocity fields that yield time histories of strain and kinetic energies which match the target systems. The proposed DDV method also serves as a procedure for restoring eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a deficient dynamical system when known data is taken into account, as shown in the numerical test cases presented here.

Numerical Simulation Study of the Vibrational Response of Continuous Arch Tunnels under the Action of Overlying Train Loads

With the rapid development of transportation infrastructure in China, continuous arch tunnels passing under existing operational railways are increasingly encountered. This paper primarily investigates the mechanical response patterns of the lining of continuous arch tunnels under the vibrational loads generated by trains traveling on railways. To this end, a three-dimensional finite element model of the dynamic response of continuous arch tunnels under train vibrational loads was constructed using Midas GTS/NX software. This model explores the patterns of acceleration, dynamic displacement, and dynamic strain responses of continuous arch tunnels under the action of moving train loads. The study reveals that under train vibrational loads, the vertical acceleration, vertical displacement, and strain time history curves at various monitoring points in the continuous arch tunnel exhibit vibrational characteristics. The acceleration, vertical displacement, and dynamic strain increase as the train enters, fluctuate within a certain range, and then decrease to zero as the train exits. Under high-speed train loads, the acceleration peak values at the arch feet and outer sidewalls of the left and right tunnels are larger, with a greater peak value difference. The vertical displacement peak values at the arch shoulders and crown are larger, whereas those at the middle partition wall and base slab are smaller. During the process from the train's entry to its exit, the dynamic strain exhibits a trend of initially increasing, then stabilizing, and finally decreasing to zero, all while displaying vibrational characteristics. The strain response on the tunnel side where the train enters is greater than that on the side where it exits.

Full‐Field Analyses of Density‐Graded Elastomeric Foams Under Quasistatic and Impact Loadings

Density‐graded elastomeric foams are emerging as effective protective structures to guard humans against mechanical loading. This research investigates the deformation of ungraded and graded foams under quasistatic and impact scenarios using digital image correlation (DIC). The graded samples are assembled using two interfacing strategies (seamless and adhered), leveraging the adhesiveness of the foam slurry and bulk polyurea, respectively. Deformation mechanisms, including the effect of the interface type on strain transduction and localization in density‐graded structures, are imperative for improving the impact efficacy of protective paddings. Cuboid foam plugs are subjected to quasistatic and impact loading while recording the corresponding deformation for DIC analysis. The DIC results are separated into three case studies based on the number of layers (1, 2, and 3). The interface effect on the overall mechanical performance of polyurea foam is revealed from the bilayer, monodensity samples, showing drastic differences between the deformations within each layer. Seamless interface samples exhibit greater compliance than their adhered counterparts in the bilayer density‐graded configurations. Trilayer‐graded foams broaden strain–time history, extend the impact duration, and reduce strains. This research substantiates the importance of interfacing and gradation strategies on the mechanical response of elastomeric foams as a function of strain rate.

Modeling the biaxial, rate-dependent response of filament-wound FRP tubes

This work studies the rate-dependent mechanical behavior of filament-wound fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite pipes. Commercially available tubes with a filament winding angle of ±55° were tested under cyclic axial compression for four loading rates. Stress relaxation under constant strain was observed as well as a dependence of stress on the strain rate. A novel modeling methodology is presented to capture the nonlinear cyclic response, including the viscoelastic behavior of the epoxy matrix and the interaction of axial and hoop strains. This is accomplished by defining an element configuration with separate elements for the epoxy matrix and the glass fibers. The nonlinear and viscoelastic behavior is incorporated using the generalized Maxwell model. A machine learning (ML) calibration framework is adapted for this study and used to calibrate the nonlinear and viscoelastic properties for the analytical model using a convolutional neural network (CNN). The CNN is trained to identify and understand the interdependencies among the model parameters. The calibrated model parameters are used to simulate the experimentally measured response of the FRP tubes and were found to be applicable across the range of strain rates. The proposed modeling methodology accurately predicted the axial stress and hoop strain time histories as well as the rate-dependent stress relaxation during constant axial strains. The accuracy capturing the measured stress-strain responses demonstrated the synthetic dataset was adequate for training the CNN without requiring additional experimental data.

Simple Estimation of Creep Properties of Negative Electrode for Lithium-Ion Battery

The macroscopic creep properties of negative electrodes in lithium-ion batteries and their estimation methods have been investigated based on the microscopic structure of the electrode. Tensile and creep tests were conducted on a negative electrode consisting of carbon powder and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. The stress-strain curve, the time history of the tensile strain, and the creep rupture time were measured in these tests and estimated using the simple model proposed in this study. The proposed model approximates the alignment of carbon particles as body-centered cubic (bcc) or face-centered cubic (fcc). The external load on the model was supported by a PVDF binder located between carbon particles. The test results showed that PVDF binder mechanical properties affect the macroscopic mechanical properties of the negative electrode, including the creep properties. The stress-strain curve and time history of the tensile strain were located between the upper and lower limits of the proposed model. The tensile strength and creep rupture time agree with the lower limit of the proposed model.

Dynamic damage characteristic of CFRP target by Ti-6Al-4V alloy flake impact at high speed

The development of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) has revolutionized the light-weight protection materials industry. In the field of aviation, understanding the damage characteristics of CFRP under high-speed impacts is vital to design aero turbofan engines with lightweight fan cases. This study uses a refined solid model of CFRP laminates created by TexGen. ABAQUS/Explicit and VUMAT user subroutine were used to simulate the failure process of CFRP laminates caused by ballistic impact experiments. The study performs a detailed analysis of data recorded during the experiment conducted where Ti-6Al-4V alloy flakes impacted CFRP laminates at velocities ranging from 156.9 m s−1 to 297 m s−1 using a light gas gun. Image recordings through high-speed cameras and 3D-DIC help identify macroscopic damage characteristics like morphology and strain of CFRP laminates. Reliability of numerical simulations was verified via dynamic strain time history curves, scanning electron microscope microstructure images and damage element morphology. Deformation processes such as matrix cracking, fiber pull-out, and delamination play a crucial role in absorbing most of the initial kinetic energy of Ti-6Al-4V alloy flake, and therefore protect the laminate. Given our findings combined with the deformation characteristics and energy absorption mechanism of ballistic impacts, a reliable numerical simulation method for the damage characteristics of Ti-6Al-4V alloy flake penetrating CFRP laminates is presented that provides a basis for designing composite case containment systems.

Dynamic behavior of EPS amended lightweight soil under cyclic loading

The dynamic behavior of expanded polystyrene (EPS) particle amended lightweight soil was explored using consolidated undrained dynamic and monotonic triaxial tests conducted on samples of lightweight soil with different mixing ratios. The dynamic stress, dynamic strain, and dynamic pore pressure time history curves, and shear strength criterion were studied. As a kind of structural soil, the dynamic strain time history curves of lightweight soil could be divided into three stages as the vibration compaction, vibration deformation and vibration failure stages according to the cumulative deformation rate of dynamic strain, but the vibration compaction stage was not obvious. The dynamic strain accumulation for lightweight soil was mainly single amplitude in compressive region. The deformation rate during the vibration failure stage for the lightweight soil was larger than that of the remolded soil owing to its increased stiffness and brittleness with added cementation. Unlike that of the remolded soil, dynamic pore pressures fluctuated markedly in lightweight soil tests. The dynamic pore pressure development of lightweight soil was found to relate to the mixing ratios of its components and the confining pressures. For lightweight soil samples with high EPS particle mixing ratio, the dynamic pore pressures remained in the positive range, increasing unsteadily with some fluctuation. However, for lower EPS content samples in different confining pressures, the dynamic pore pressure showed decreasing trends into the negative range, again changing unsteadily with fluctuation, showing a trend of suction and soil skeletal dilation. Based on analysis of results, it was determined that, general pore pressure, limit equilibrium and yield criterias were not suitable to describe the dynamic behavior of lightweight soil, while the dynamic strain criterion was suitable. Excluding the plastic deformation range, the single amplitude dynamic compression strain of 5% was recommended as the dynamic strain criterion to determine dynamic strength of lightweight soil.

Numerical analysis of buried pipelines response to bidirectional non-uniform seismic excitation

The multi-directional, spatially variable earthquake motion is a primary cause of pipeline damage during earthquakes. A comprehensive finite element model considering soil nonlinearity and pipeline-soil interaction nonlinearity was established and validated based on shaking table tests and then employed to investigate the difference in response of buried pipelines subjected to longitudinal unidirectional (UD) and bidirectional (BD) horizontal non-uniform excitations. The responses were evaluated in terms of the acceleration and axial strain time histories along with the peak axial strain, hoop strain, and radial strain in the pipeline cross-section. The results demonstrate that the strain response and axial force of the pipeline under BD excitation are 50%-70% larger than under UD excitation. The large difference is attributed to the increase in maximum frictional force and the delay of the strain growth inflection point under the BD excitation. It was also observed that the pipeline cross-section experienced only lateral ovalization under the UD excitation. For the BD excitation, the cross-section experienced both lateral ovalization and vertical ovalization. Finally, the existence of the Y-direction seismic component in the BD excitation did not significantly change the X-direction acceleration response of the pipeline but increased the peak values.

Evaluating pod-based unsupervised damage identification using controlled damage propagation of out-of-service bridges

The effectiveness of Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) for damage identification on out of service, rural bridges is examined using field data. Three similar, out of service, simply supported bridges, consisting of steel beams supporting a concrete deck, were tested prior to demolition and replacement. Strain time histories were recorded using optimal sensor networks with a vehicle of known weight crossed each bridge in different transverse locations and directions, and at varying speeds. The effectiveness with which the developed POD based methodology for damage identification was evaluated by progressively flame cutting select steel beam flanges and webs on each bridge. Snapshot matrices of structural response as measured by the sensors were used to create Proper Orthogonal Modes (POMs), and were obtained for each damage level and test, with the POMs being used to identify if changes in structural response were detected. The accuracy with which the POMs identified damage locations and their sensitivity to vehicle location and direction were evaluated. In addition, a previously developed novelty detection framework proposed by some co-authors was applied to identify changes after damage. It is shown that POD and the developed novelty index can effectively identify certain levels of imposed damage in tested bridges under known loads.

Performance of engineered cementitious composite (ECC) monolithic and composite slabs subjected to near-field blast

To improve the performance of reinforced concrete (RC) structural members subjected to blast, especially the spalling due to the brittleness of concrete, engineered cementitious composite (ECC) was applied in monolithic and composite slabs and their responses subjected to near-field blast were experimentally investigated in the present study. First, two different ECC materials were prepared and tested with quasi-static direct tension and flexural tests, whose results showed significantly improved tensile ductility and strength compared to normal concrete. Then a field test was conducted to investigate the response of ECC monolithic and composite slabs under near field blast, with an RC slab as reference. The responses of these slabs were compared in terms of response mode, residual deformation, crack initiation and development, spalling, strain time history, etc. The test observations suggested that in addition to the ductile response and failure of ECC subjected to quasi-static direct tension and flexural tests, ECC still exhibited ductile response at high strain rate when applied in monolithic and composite slabs under near field blast. Compared to the perforation and spalling of RC slab, the ECC monolithic or composite slabs underwent large deformation, until collapse failure with a major crack in the mid-span occurred. Importantly, throughout the whole response process, even the ECC monolithic and composite slabs collapse with a major crack at mid-span, no spalling was observed. Furthermore, no delamination occurred in the interface between the RC and ECC layer of the RC/ECC slabs. Both the ECC monolithic slab and RC/ECC composite slab exhibited favorable performance subjected to near-field blast. These observations implied that the ECC is promising in the potential application of structural protection against blast, not only for replacing certain key components in the newly built structures but also for retrofitting existing RC structures.

Influence of frost and local stiffness variations on the strain mode shapes of a steel arch bridge

Natural frequencies are probably the most widely used modal characteristics in vibration-based monitoring. However, they can be highly influenced by temperature and this influence can completely mask the effect of even severe damage. This translates into a necessity for time-consuming data-normalization techniques to remove the influence of temperature and identify damage. Displacement mode shapes of homogeneous material structures are less influenced by temperature, but obtaining them in a dense grid, which is required for damage localization, is cumbersome due to the large number of sensors needed. Strain mode shapes on the other hand can be insensitive to temperature variations, while obtaining them in a dense grid is possible when fiber-optic sensors such as fiber-Bragg gratings (FBG) are used. This work presents the results of the continuous monitoring of a steel railway bridge for a period of almost two years, where modal data were collected for a wide temperature range. The bridge is instrumented with eighty FBG strain sensors, multiplexed in four fibers. The natural frequencies and strain mode shapes of ten modes have been automatically identified from operational strain time histories, on an hourly basis. A clear influence of temperature on the natural frequency of most modes is identified, especially during frost periods. On the contrary, the strain mode shapes are mostly insensitive to temperature changes and only these of some higher-order modes are slightly and uniformly influenced when frost occurs. This behavior is confirmed also by a finite element model (FE) of the bridge. Furthermore, the FE model is used to investigate the influence of local stiffness changes on the modal characteristics. A clear and local change of the modal strain amplitude is observed at the location of the reduced stiffness, especially when information from all modes is combined in a sensitive damage index.

An effective prediction method for bridge long-gauge strain under moving trainloads with experimental verification

This paper presents a dynamic long-gauge strain prediction method for high-speed railway bridges when fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors are used. First, a refined three-dimensional numerical model of a rail-track bridge is established to calculate long-gauge strain response under moving trainloads. Then, by comparing the experiment measured and predicted acceleration histories of the bridge, the correctness of the prediction method for the dynamic response of the high-speed railway bridge is verified. A novel approach has been put forward to calculate the long-gauge strain, which can quickly obtain the dynamic long-gauge strain of high-speed railway bridges without knowing the height of the neutral axis in the section covered by the sensor. Finally, comparative field tests were conducted to verify the accuracy of the dynamic long-gauge strain prediction approach, and a health monitoring system based on distributed long-gauge strain sensing technology was installed on a high-speed railway bridge. The comparison results show that the dynamic long-gauge strain of high-speed railway bridges can be effectively predicted in the FE model. Furthermore, an envelope curve composed of long-gauge strain peak values was used for evaluating bridge stiffness degradation, and the prediction results show that the high-speed railway bridges' local and global stiffness degradation can be reflected in long-gauge strain time history. The predicted method of long-gauge dynamic strain under train load described may attract engineers who use FBG sensors to monitor the health of high-speed railway bridges.

A scaled test on the damage and vibration behavior of reinforced concrete nuclear containment subjected to a large aircraft impact

After the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States, the ability of nuclear power plants (NPPs) to resist the malicious impact of large commercial aircraft has become a focus in the nuclear security field. To investigate the damage and vibration characteristics of NPP containment against a large aircraft impact, an experiment of an airplane impacting a reinforced concrete (RC) nuclear containment structure model was carried out using a rocket sled launching facility. In the experiment, a 1/15 scaled RC nuclear containment structure model was designed and built according to a certain type of NPP building prototype. The total impact process was recorded by a high-speed photography system. Moreover, the corresponding test data and physical parameters of the nuclear containment model were obtained, including the damaged area of the RC nuclear containment model, acceleration time histories, reinforcement steel strain time histories, etc. It is found that the containment model exhibits local damage when the large aircraft model collides with a velocity of 142.3 m/s. However, reinforcement prevents the large aircraft model from perforating the NPP containment effectively. In this paper, the damage and failure rules and characteristics of RC nuclear containment under the impact of a large aircraft are discussed, and the impact vibration response characteristics of nuclear containment are preliminarily analyzed based on the test. The related studies and conclusions can provide a basis for NPP structural optimization and the safety assessment of large commercial aircraft collision problems and can also provide data support for finite element (FE) modelling.

Experimental validation and numerical investigation of virtual strain sensing methods for steel railway bridges

Railway bridges are subjected to intermittent excitations induced by gravity loads. The monitoring of stress time histories at fatigue prone areas (i.e., “hot spots”) for steel, heavy haul railway bridges is vital for cost-effective maintenance and, most importantly, for maintaining safety. In this regard, strain measurements are crucial for determining fatigue susceptibility and, possibly, damage to steel bridges under daily, cyclical loading conditions. While, in the limit, sensing the response of a steel bridge under operational conditions is the best way to identify hot spots to prevent damage and, possibly, collapse, it is impractical if not impossible to install strain sensors at every susceptible location. To address this issue, the current study focuses on virtual sensing of strain time histories on steel railway bridges using sparse response measurements. An augmented Kalman filter (AKF) method was adopted for input-state estimation. Since AKF estimates unknown load and response using a physical model, it is crucial to assess the effects of modeling uncertainties on estimation results. In addition to AKF, Modal Expansion (ME) was adopted for extrapolation of measured response to unmeasured locations. In contrast to AKF, which requires a full physical model, ME only relies on vibration modes. A novel application of the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) method that facilitates data-driven strain prediction by relying on data obtained from field measurements or models was also developed and examined. The study was completed using simulated experiments and strains measured from an in-service, through girder, steel railway bridge. The three methods were compared and strengths and limitations of each were highlighted.