Timber Structures Research Articles

Evaluation and prediction of bending properties of glulam beams made from young plantation-grown Eucalyptus nitens

ABSTRACT Interest in making glulam from plantation-grown Eucalyptus nitens has increased, but current structural timber standards were not designed for species grown in plantations. Additionally, the applicability of classical composite beam theory remains uncertain due to the unique features of this species. This study was designed to assess the hypothesis that the bending performance of glulam made from young plantation-grown E. nitens is reliable and predictable. We tested the hypothesis through experimental procedures and theoretical and statistical analyses. First, we assessed the bending performance of 20 glulam beams, which were manufactured in five configurations. Second, we compared our experimental results with predictive values to evaluate the accuracy of methods in current standards. Third, in our pursuit of improved predictive tools, we developed theoretical and parametric models using mechanical properties of the board elements. Our improved models showed a decreased deviation in both stiffness and strength values. A Monte Carlo simulation was used to determine the distribution for both stiffness and strength. The results validated that this product can be allocated a GL grade using current standards and the bending performance is predictable. The study enhances confidence in incorporating E. nitens into glulam products and offers valuable data for future specification modifications.

Non-Contact Laser Doppler Vibrometer for Characterization of Guided Waves in Timber Structures with Varying Moisture Content and Grain Orientations

Timber structures have been widely used in critical engineering applications throughout history. The need for Non-Destructive Testing of timbers has arisen, and ultrasonic-guided waves (GWs) have proved their efficacy in studying structural integrity. The effect of the grain direction in orthotropic timber structures on the propagation characteristics of GWs is not well understood, especially in the presence of moisture. This study aims to comprehend the effects of timber-grain orientations and the moisture content (MC) on dominant GW modes, specifically, on the anti-symmetric A0 mode. The study is based on samples extracted from a Western White Pine utility pole, in three different orientations including longitudinal, tangential, and radial. The MC is introduced using a desiccator with a saturated salt solution. The studied MC conditions included dry, ambient MC, and high MCs varying from 10% to 27%. The GWs were excited using piezoelectric actuators and sensed with a Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometer with Free-Free boundary condition. Phase velocities were obtained using the frequency-wavenumber plots of the measured line scans and were compared to the analytical curves for mode analysis. The results showed that the experimental A0-mode phase velocities match well with those generated analytically. The difference was negligible for longitudinally oriented specimens with a percentage difference ranging from 0.28% to 5.34%, as the MC varied. The phase velocity decreased by about 7% as the MC increased from 0% to 27%. A noticeable difference in the phase velocity was measured with different orientations; at dry conditions, the A0 propagated at 958 m/s in the longitudinal specimens, while it decreased in the tangential specimens to about 760 m/s, and had the lowest phase velocity in the radial direction reaching 433 m/s. The results show a high sensitivity of the propagating GWs to the direction of the fibers and the MC present in the timber.

Robotic-based terahertz spectroscopy imaging for non-destructive monitoring of water loss-induced damage in timber materials under low temperature stress

Timber materials are widely used in various industries, from construction to furniture manufacturing. One of the critical factors affecting the structural integrity and longevity of timber is water loss-induced damage, which often occurs under low-temperature stress conditions. Monitoring and assessing this damage traditionally involve invasive and time-consuming methods. This study explores the application of robotic-based terahertz spectroscopy 3D imaging as a non-destructive and efficient system for assessing the impact of water loss on timber materials under low-temperature stress. The detection and localization of damage in a various species of timber-based structures were experimentally investigated by performing pulsed terahertz time-domain spectroscopy and using a six- DOF (degree-of-freedom) robotic arm. The thickness and damage length were monitored by designing the reflection geometry of the terahertz scanner. Additionally, the terahertz source was controlled with a six-DOF robot arm for path planning. The corresponding measured dielectric property reference value for the damage identification was computed using a captured terahertz wave at 12% of moisture content. The reflected signals were analyzed to determine the thickness, defectiveness, and locations of the defects through signal processing in the time and frequency domains. Finally, the validity of the structural health monitoring approach for 3D detection and visualization of water loss-induced defects in timber structures using terahertz waves, was discussed.

Durability of mass timber: managing moisture effectively

The durability of mass timber structures is greatly influenced by the extent to which the timber is exposed to moisture. Understanding the conditions in which moisture ingress, and associated biological agents, can become a problem and designing with durability in mind can ensure the long-term performance and resilience of mass timber structures. This article provides an introduction to moisture management in mass timber structures, including key design, site-handling and installation principles that will help to ensure longevity.

Constitutive and numerical modelling for timber-metal connections under large deformations

Computational modelling of complex timber-metal connections undergoing large deformations is crucial for the design of safe and robust multi-storey timber structures. Accurate simulation through large deformations requires constitutive models that suitably capture the full post-elastic behaviour of materials. Post-elastic behaviour of timber is particularly challenging to model due to strong anisotropy and material non-linearity in the post-elastic regime. Efficient simulation of complex connections requires advanced numerical modelling techniques to expedite explicit solution in the finite element domain. In this study, a suitable constitutive model for ductile metal components through large deformations, including consideration of stress localisation and triaxiality post-necking, is described. Some existing constitutive models for timber are discussed, and new constitutive models capturing both ductile and brittle failure modes are presented. A new formulation of the Hoffmann yield criterion with isotropic hardening for explicit solution is presented, and new VUMAT user subroutines for explicit solution in ABAQUS for Hoffmann, Sandhaas, Gharib, Hill-Gharib and Hoffmann-Gharib models are developed and made available for the benefit of other researchers. A benchmarked numerical model incorporating advanced modelling techniques to improve computational efficiency without compromising accuracy is presented for a complex timber, aluminium and steel dowelled beam-column connection tested shear and moment dominated testing. The simulation results compare favourably with experimental results in the literature, demonstrating that the proposed constitutive models and numerical modelling techniques provide realistic predictions of behaviour, including failure mode, and thus have the potential to support the design of complex timber-metal connections through large deformations under quasi-static and dynamic loading.

Advancing architectural heritage: precision decoding of East Asian timber structures from Tang dynasty to traditional Japan

The convergence of cultural and aesthetic elements in timber structures from China’s Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) and traditional Japanese architecture provides a rich tapestry of architectural evolution and cross-cultural exchanges. Addressing the challenge of distinguishing and understanding the intricate styles of these structures is significant for both historical comprehension and preservation efforts. This research introduces an innovative approach by integrating the Multi-Head Attention (MHA) mechanism into the YOLOv8 model, enhancing the detection of architectural features with improved precision and recall. Our novel YOLOv8-MHA model not only demonstrates a notable improvement in recognizing intricate architectural details but also significantly advances the state of the art in object detection within complex settings. Quantitative results underscore the model’s effectiveness, achieving a precision of 95.6%, a recall of 85.6%, and a mean Average Precision (mAP@50) of 94% across various Intersection over Union (IoU) thresholds. These metrics highlight the model’s superior capability to accurately identify and classify architectural elements, especially within environments rich with nuanced details, utilizing the enhanced YOLOv8-MHA algorithm. The application of our model extends beyond mere architectural analysis; it offers new insights into the intricate interplay of cultural identity and adaptability inherent in East Asian architectural heritage. The study establishes a solid foundation for the meticulous classification and analysis of architectural styles in timber structures within an expansive cultural and historical context, thereby enriching our understanding and preservation of these traditions.

Flexural behavior of glulam beams reinforced by bonded prestressing tendons

The rapid progression of mass timber structures towards greater spans presents a challenge for the flexural behavior of glulam beams. In this study, this challenge was addressed by reinforcing the glulam beams with prestressing tendons which were bonded to the glulam beams by epoxy resin. The objective of this study is to investigate the influence of prestressing force levels and bonded types on the flexural behavior of prestressed glulam beams. Four-point bending tests were conducted on twelve glulam beams prepared by unreinforced, unbonded prestressed or bonded prestressed techniques. Experimental results revealed that the glulam beams exhibited increased ductility under prestressing force. Compared with unreinforced beams, the prestressed beams demonstrated a remarkable increase of up to 78.8 % in flexural capacity and 13.5 % in flexural stiffness. For the prestressed beams, the flexural capacity increased as prestressing force increases. Compared with the unbonded prestressed beams at the same prestressing force level, the bonded ones exhibited higher flexural capacity and flexural stiffness. Additionally, the bonded prestressed beams exhibited a slight increase in tendon stress at the end of the prestressing tendon during loading, indicating favorable bonding behavior of epoxy resin. Numerical models were developed to predict the non-linear flexural behavior of prestressed beams, and the numerical results showed good agreements with the experimental results. Parametric analysis based on the numerical models was conducted on the prestressed beams at various prestressing force levels. The positive effect of the bonded prestressed method on the flexual behavior of glulam beams was further substantiated.

Numerical simulation and safety assessment of fires in historic timber structures based on fire load investigation

Historic timber structures face substantial fire loads and complex fire risks. Subsequent renovations and utilization may influence their fire safety performance. Therefore, accurately predicting indoor fire development in historic buildings and assessing their fire safety performance is crucial. Numerical fire simulation is currently at the forefront of analyzing and assessing fire risks in historic buildings. However, there is a shortage of globally accessible historic building fire data. This paper proposes a method to determine fire scenarios, peak heat release rates, and development curves of indoor fires in wooden historic buildings through a fire load investigation. Using the Guangzhou ancestral hall as an example, PyroSim fire dynamics simulation software is employed to calculate fire development and assess the available safe evacuation time. The simulation results are subsequently input into the Pathfinder evacuation simulation software to ascertain the required safe evacuation time for indoor occupants. A comparative assessment is conducted to evaluate the fire safety performance before and after the renovation of historic buildings. The research findings indicate that installing closed glass curtain walls in the courtyards of ancestral hall buildings in Guangzhou accelerates the infiltration of smoke during fires, leading to rapid fire spread and long-distance ignition, significantly reducing the time available for safe evacuation. Therefore, when renovating and utilizing the ancestral hall buildings in Guangzhou, the installation of ventilation and smoke extraction systems should be prioritized to slow down fire development. Additionally, controlling the number of indoor occupants is an effective management measure to mitigate fire damage in historic buildings.

The Current State of Gender-based Diversity within the Field of Canadian Professional Structural Timber Engineering

There is currently minimal data that may be used for retention and recruitment strategies for timber professional engineering in Canada. A comprehensive survey performed in 2022 to address this lack of data is discussed. The survey was generated and analyzed by York University (Canada) and distributed through the Canadian Wood Council’s membership directory. This survey explored participants’ motivations for working on timber-based structural projects and the existing state of EDI training within the workspace. Findings from the context of analysis illustrated that retention in the work force appears not to be affected by gender, with participants overwhelmingly indicating their plan is to continue to work in the timber structural engineering sector. Gender specific findings suggest that most men who practice timber structural design have had more recorded work experience, whereas women were more likely to obtain a PhD when pursuing graduate school.

Monotonic and cyclic flexural performance of timber beams strengthened with glass fiber-reinforced polymer rods using near-surface mounted technique

Wood has gained widespread use as a construction material for structures. The strengthening of timber structures using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement remains challenging. This paper presents an experimental investigation of timber beams strengthened with glass FRP (GFRP) rods subjected to flexure. Sixteen specimens, including four un-strengthened beams (control beams) and twelve strengthened beams, were tested. The beam dimensions were 45 mm in width, 95 mm in depth, and 1800 mm in length. The GFRP rods were retrofitted the beam soffit applying near-surface mounted (NSM) method. The test variables included the GFRP ratios by volume (i.e., 0 %, 0.59 %, 0.88 %, and 1.32 %) and the loading types of monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. The flexural performance of the beams, including the capacity, mid-span deflection versus load, displacement at the peak load, initial stiffness, energy absorption, and failure mode are assessed. Additionally, the cross-section equilibrium analysis of the GFRP-reinforced timber beams is implemented to compare against the experimental results. The experimental results indicated that the GFRP rods can enhance the flexural effectiveness of the strengthened beams subject to both monotonic and cyclic tests. Compared with the reference beams, the GFRP-retrofitted beams showed an increase by 20 %− 61 % in load-carrying capacity, by 58 %− 71 % in initial stiffness, and by 35 %− 96 % in energy absorption under monotonic loading. Meanwhile, under cyclic loading, the GFRP-reinforced timber beams exhibited an increase by 22 %− 75 % in maximum load, by 58 %− 90 % in initial stiffness, and by 19 %− 37 % in energy absorption. On other hand, the flexural moment resistance of GFRP-reinforced timber beams predicted by the section analysis depicts a good agreement compared to experimental results.

Experimental assessment of modal properties of hybrid CFRP-timber panels

Hybrid timber composites are becoming increasingly widespread to efficiently enhance timber performance. While carbon fibre reinforcement has been explored for strength in timber structures, its impact on vibration performance remains understudied and is crucial as mass timber buildings extend their spans and heights. This work explores the effect of carbon fibre reinforcement on the vibration performance parameters of CLT floor systems. Natural frequency, mode shape, damping and stiffness parameters are evaluated from experimental testing using the Natural Excitation Technique (NExT) combined with the Eigensystem Realization Algorithm (ERA) and robust techniques for selection of physical dynamic properties, verified against numerical finite element models. The findings reveal that, in the case of three-ply Cross-laminated Timber (CLT) panels with depths ranging from 115 mm to 135 mm, introducing reinforcement at ratios below 0.67% led to an enhancement in frequencies, registering an increase of 6% to 11%, although not explicitly accounting for changes in environmental conditions. Moreover, these reinforced panels showed a relevant increase in effective flexural stiffness, ranging from 15% to 22%, when compared to their unreinforced counterparts. This means an improved maximum span of around 4%–6% within current design limits for timber floors influenced by vibration performance. These findings enhance the understanding and design of high-performance composite timber floors, promoting the use of renewable building materials in construction.

Timber Strength Grading as Necessary Basis for Structural Design in ex-YU Region

The aim of this paper is to contribute to the classification of structural timber in the ex-YU region into strength-class system through the application of experimentally obtained archive data in order to provide a realistic framework for most commonly used II grade (according to JUS) structural coniferous timber. The analysis of archive data was carried out on a sample of 150 specimens of structural size and based on the set of statistical requirements prescribed by EN standards, taking into account the change in disposition of loading in laboratory testing in the past and now. Statistical procedures prescribed by EN standards are given through calculation steps together with necessary adjustment factors that cover the size and number of specimens. The presented procedures given for structural-size specimens are also applicable to small clear specimens, so that a more comprehensive research and additional new examinations could be conducted with the available archive data simultaneously with the harmonization of the visual classification rules applied in the ex-YU region. The paper emphasises the direct dependence of the consistent application of the visual grading rules required by the relevant EN standard on strength-class system.

Theoretical model of the three - Stage parameter fire curve considering the contribution of combustible materials

Fire resistance is a critical factor constraining structural safety performance, specifically for Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) structures. Due to wood being a combustible material, the exposed wood will participate in combustion, increasing the fire load density and char rates, thereby causing more severe fire risks. In order to investigate the effect of exposed wood on fire temperature, this paper summarized 32 char rate data from 11 CLT room fire tests and fitted the relationship between wood exposure area and char rate, establishes a theoretical formula for the proportion of fire load burned outside the room to the total fire load, and it also establishes a theoretical formula for the three-stage parameter fire curve, which considers the contribution of combustible materials to fire load and char rate, as well as the transition from ventilation controlled to fuel controlled during the cooling stage of the fire. The accuracy of the three-stage parameter fire curve was verified through comparison with test results. Sensitivity analysis was conducted on the main parameters that affect the three-stage parameter fire curve. The results showed that the degree of influence of each factor on the maximum temperature of the fire and the time to reach the maximum temperature was as follows: fire load density > vent height > vent width > wood exposure area.

Out-of-plane bending properties of cross laminated timber (CLT)

In Europe the structural timber building product cross laminated timber (CLT) is regulated via European Technical Assessments (ETAs), which require large and voluminous test campaigns to obtain. So far, there is no standardised CLT strength class system nor a set of harmonised properties. Such a strength class system and tabulated values could be accompanied by a set of so-called load-bearing models, analogous to the current regulations for glued laminated timber (GLT). The aims of this contribution are to comprehensively analyse the first known load-bearing model for out-of-plane bending of CLT from 2006 and to validate and benchmark this approach with possible further candidates. The aim is to initiate the establishment of a European strength class system for CLT based on its out-of-plane bending properties, for a more reliable, regulatory compliant structural building product and for enhancing its market acceptance. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of various potential influencing parameters on out-of-plane CLT bending properties is effected by means of stochastic-numerical investigations as well as a large amount of test campaigns, the latter in the form of a retrospective study. The first approach from 2006, in particular in its adapted version, is successfully validated and confirmed as a valuable candidate for the future regulation of CLT due to its overall more accurate and more reliable strength predictions compared with the other candidates. In addition, models for the density and the modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain, as currently defined for glulam, are confirmed to be applicable also for CLT. An analysis of the variation in the properties of the base material and CLT motivates additional efforts towards grading and quality assurance in order to meet the expectations of the nominal strength class of boards and to fulfil minimum requirements for finger joint quality to better utilise the high performance of CLT and to increase its reliability.

An innovative energy-dissipation angle bracket for CLT structures: Experimental tests and numerical analysis

The connection system controls the behavior of the Cross-laminated timber (CLT) structures under horizontal loads. This paper introduced an innovative energy-dissipation angle bracket for CLT structures, which takes advantage of the soft-steel bracket and high-damping rubber to provide superior ductility and energy-dissipating capacity. Experimental tests under monotonic and reversed cyclic loading were performed to investigate the failure mechanism and mechanical properties of this energy-dissipation connector. After validating the detailed finite element models based on the test results, numerical parametric analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of several parameters. The results show that the energy-dissipation angle bracket connector mainly exhibits three failure modes, including the rupture of dissipative ribs, local bearing failure of the base, and the debonding of the internal rubber. The ribs’ rupture is the dominant failure mode, especially under cyclic loading, after which the connector can still work integrally because of the rubber that is tightly bonded to the steel skeleton. All the tested connectors show high ductility and great energy-dissipating capacity, as indicated by the ductility larger than 9.5 and the equivalent viscous damping ratio within 9 %− 26 %. According to the numerical parametric analysis, the load-carrying capacity of the energy-dissipation angle bracket is positively correlated with the steel skeleton’s thickness and ultimate strength, and the adoption of the washer, while the rubber’s height has little impact on the load-carrying capacity. The outcomes of this study provide valuable references for subsequent improvement and potential applications of the innovative angle bracket for CLT structures.

A Controversial Make-Over of a ‘Make-Believe’ Heritage—The Transformation of Guangrenwang Temple

This article discusses issues related to sustainable heritage management in China and problematises two dichotomies in heritage practices and research: the ‘Eastern/Western’ approaches and the tangible–intangible divide. It addresses these issues by examining the dramatic ‘make-over’ project of Guangrenwang Temple in Shanxi Province, China. The ‘make-over’ project transformed a small rural temple with a ninth-century timber structure into an architectural history museum, with a combination of private, public, and crowd-sourced funding. A real-estate corporation played a significant role in the project’s initiative and organised a large-scale national and international publicity campaign around the project. Previously unknown to most laypeople in China, the temple attracted much debate since the project’s completion, revolving around its ‘cultural legitimacy’, the design’s appropriateness, the sustainability of the revitalisation, and the implications of the project to its ‘heritage value’ and authenticity. This article traces the opinions, actions, and effects of the temple’s heritage assemblage and reveals the causal powers contributing to the emergence and transformation of associations within. It further questions the project team’s claims regarding the project’s effects on the historic setting’s authenticity and its long-term social impact on the relationship between the temple and its community. It reveals five controversies regarding the choice of its curation theme, architectural language, decision-making, and management models. The complexities manifested in the actors’ actions and effects demonstrate the ambiguous boundaries between the tangible and the intangible, and the perceived ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ approaches.

An Analysis of the Fire Performance of Small-Scale Canadian Heritage Hardwood and Softwood

A common consideration in the rehabilitation of historic timber structures is addressing the concerns for fire safety. Heritage structures can have softwoods but depending on the time they were built they may also have hardwoods present. Currently, there is a lack of knowledge on the char rate of heritage hardwood and softwood. This study presents initial findings into the charring of these historic materials as they would be encountered in practice through samples taken from pre-existing aged timber structures in Canada that are greater than 100 years old. The materials were tested in a cone calorimeter following a modified ASTM 1354 procedure. Hardwood samples typically exhibited a faster charring rate than the softwoods but the charring rates converged at 1.05 mm/min when exposed to higher fluxes of 50 kW/m2. As rehabilitation and readaptation may require performance-based approaches such as structural fire modelling, a provisional framework for a numerical model using LS DYNA for historic timber members is presented. The objective is to identify future research and testing areas to develop a higher certainty model. In the a-priori model presented, results showed conservative charring rate results with charring trends seen in the experiment generally being followed.

Thermal response of timber connections using densified wood dowels under fire

A new type of timber connection using densified wood dowels is being developed and tested. The procedure involves inserting these densified dowels into pre-drilled holes. As this connection technique is in its early stages, a unique design approach is necessary, considering the impact of temperature variations. The primary goal is to characterize the thermal behaviour of these connections under elevated temperatures. The study employs an experimental approach, complemented by numerical analysis, innovatively applying kinetic models, commonly used for investigating heat-related biomass characteristics, to wood. The method requires the use of thermogravimetric analysis to identify the kinetic parameters. The proposed pyrolysis kinetic model has been implemented in the Abaqus/Implicit code via a user subroutine UMATHT. The study concludes that using kinetic models enhances accuracy by considering mass loss, a key factor influencing thermal properties. Simulation successfully replicates temperature distribution and charred layer thickness, crucial for designing timber structures.

An investigation on the craft of Tianche: traditional timber salt well structures of the Sichuan Basin, China

This study investigates the craft of Tianche, an ancient towering timber structure used in well salt production in Sichuan Province, China. Originating in the Han Dynasty and maturing in the late Qing Dynasty, Tianches can reach heights of up to 110 m and represent a unique craft and structural system that is rare worldwide, yet remains largely unexplored in scholarly research. The Tianches are under threat due to a lack of maintenance and extinction of the craft. This study aims to document and elucidate the procedure and principles of the Tianche craft to help conserve this heritage. The key question is how to employ traditional craft to assemble over 100-m-tall structures from small-sized logs using pre-industrial technology. The study combines anthropological fieldwork and principles of mechanics to analyze the scientific validity and rationality of traditional crafts. The study reveals the principles of the Tianche craft, including mature craft procedure and reliable binding joints. Its advantages, namely self-locking structure, frictional force transmission, and hollow cylindrical columns, enhance the structure’s strength and stability and are fundamental for constructing 100-m-tall timber structures. Additionally, the study identifies two limitations of the craft: restricted column diameters and the tendency of the inverted dragon member’s tenon to break. This study investigated Tianche timber structures featuring hollow, bundle-like columns with frictional force transmission mechanism, presenting new possibilities beyond mainstream timber structural systems. The findings may contribute to enhancing research on the Tianche craft and could lay the foundation for future conservation practices related to Tianche heritage.

Full-scale shaking table tests of cross-laminated timber structures adopting dissipative angle brackets and hold-downs with soft-steel and rubber

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) has recently attracted significant interest in building timber or hybrid structures owing to the rapidly growing demand for low-carbon construction materials with excellent mechanical properties. To investigate the seismic performance of CLT structures adopting novel dissipative angle brackets and hold-downs with soft-steel and rubber (i.e., SRD-ABs and SRD-HDs), a series of shaking table tests were performed on two full-scale specimens, i.e., a benchmark specimen (Specimen Ⅰ) and a specimen with a multi-doorway at the ground (Specimen Ⅱ). Several representative ground motions, including the Turkey wave, El Centro wave, Wenchuan wave, and Shanghai artificial wave, were selected as excitations, whose peak acceleration increased gradually from 0.035 g to 0.80 g. The damage patterns of the structures were revealed, and the dynamic characteristics and responses were obtained and analyzed. The results show that the fundamental frequencies of Specimen Ⅰ and Specimen Ⅱ were 4.125 Hz and 3.625 Hz, respectively. The mode shapes of each specimen remained similar before tests with peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.51 g, with only a slight decrease of approximately 5 % in the fundamental frequency, indicating that the specimens only suffered minor damage because of the great energy-dissipating capacity of the SRD-ABs and SRD-HDs. After experiencing tests with PGA of 0.80 g, the specimen exhibited a maximum inter-story drift of 1/60 with a structural damping ratio of 13 %, and the damage was mainly exhibited at the SRD-ABs and SRD-HDs, which realized the performance objective of replaceability of dissipative connections and repairability of structures under the 9-degree rare earthquakes. Furthermore, non-linear numerical models were developed to duplicate the dynamic characteristics and responses of the test specimen, and the analytical results from the models show satisfactory agreement with the test results. Overall, the outcomes of this paper can provide valuable references for future research and applications of CLT structures with the SRD-ABs and SRD-HDs.