Tibetan Pastoralists Research Articles

“Doing the Work of Science”: Tibetan Environmentalists and the Changing Dynamics of Ecological Conservation in China

Abstract In the context of China's “Constructing ecological civilization” initiative, Tibetan environmentalists are proactively incorporating ecological science into their wildlife conservation efforts. This ethnographic study explores the logics, rationales and motivations behind this approach among Tibetans in Qinghai province. The article contends that Tibetan environmentalists adopt ecological science to gain legibility in the eyes of both the state and the wider environmental conservation community, thereby enhancing their political legitimacy and social recognition. On one hand, this practice counters the stigmatizing narratives that depict Tibetan pastoralists as backward. By embracing scientific discourses and practices, they challenge such derogatory views and position themselves as forward-thinking conservationists. On the other hand, this strategy indirectly preserves the traditional knowledge of pastoralists. Through their involvement with ecological science, they merge traditional insights with scientific methodologies, ensuring the protection of their cultural heritage while adapting to the sociopolitical landscape of contemporary conservation dynamics in China.

Lost on the path towards modernity. Urbanisation and livelihood prospects of the transitional generation in Tibetan rural areas in Qinghai, People’s Republic of China

The development of western areas of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) with accentuated urbanisation has had a significant impact on the established livelihood of the Tibetan pastoralists and semi-pastoralists. The middle-aged generation in particular faces enormous challenges to find its place in the changing environment and to adapt and develop new livelihoods that can provide sufficient income to cover increasing household expenses. They find themselves in transition between a vanishing past and an advancing future – a state that can cause severe economic and social insecurity.

Prevalence of obesity and its association with dietary patterns: a cohort study among Tibetan pastoralists in Qinghai Province

Objectives: To explore obesity prevalence and its association with dietary patterns among Tibetan pastoralists during the urbanization transition in Qinghai Province. Methods: Using an open cohort study design, 1 003 subjects were enrolled at baseline in 2018, 599 were followed up, and 1 012 were newly recruited in 2022. A total of 1 913 adults over 18 years were included in the study, and a questionnaire survey and health examination were conducted. Factor analysis was used to identify dietary patterns, and a mixed-effects model was used to analyze the association between dietary patterns and obesity. Results: From 2018 to 2022, the prevalence rates of overweight, obesity, and central obesity were 27.6%, 33.8%, and 54.6%, respectively. Age-sex-standardized prevalence of obesity and central obesity increased. Three dietary patterns were identified: the modern pattern was characterized by frequent consumption of pork, poultry, processed meat, fresh fruits, sugary drinks, salty snacks, etcetera; the urban pattern was characterized by frequent consumption of refined carbohydrates, beef and mutton, vegetables and eggs, etcetera; and pastoral pattern featured frequent consumption of tsamba, Tibetan cheese, buttered/milk tea, and whole-fat dairy products. After adjusting for demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, and lifestyle factors, compared with the T1, subjects in the T3 of urban pattern scores were more likely to be overweight (OR=2.09, 95%CI: 1.10-3.95) and overweight/obese (OR=1.23, 95%CI: 1.00-1.51), whereas those in the T3 of pastoral pattern scores had a lower risk of overweight (OR=0.45, 95%CI: 0.24-0.84), obesity (OR=0.81, 95%CI: 0.69-0.95), overweight/obesity (OR=0.75, 95%CI: 0.61-0.91) and central obesity (OR=0.58, 95%CI: 0.38-0.89). Conclusions: Prevalence of obesity and central obesity was high among Tibetan pastoralists during the urbanization transition. Urban dietary pattern was a risk factor for overweight and overweight/obesity, whereas pastoral dietary pattern was a protective factor for overweight, obesity, overweight/obesity, and central obesity. Tailored interventions are needed to improve local people's health.

Livelihood system approach to understanding household energy consumption behaviours of Tibetan pastoralists in China

Understanding of how rural livelihood systems embedded in different social‐ecological contexts affect household energy consumption behaviour is critical for facilitating rural energy transition. This study assesses the energy consumption level and structure for three different livelihood systems, including mobile livelihood (ML), semi‐settled livelihood (SSL) and settled livelihood (SL), from the pastoral regions of the Tibetan Plateau. Results show that the average household energy consumption in ML, SSL and SL systems is 9250.1, 14 714.3 and 7004.5 kgce, respectively. Although yak dung is the dominant energy source in the ML and SSL systems, commercial energy sources are extensively used. When rural herders are resettled into peri‐urban areas, commercial energy sources become dominant though the percentage of yak dung consumption remains high. Mobile livestock production strategies and the associated rangeland tenure regimes and cultural practices are key determinant household energy choice factors of the ML and SSL systems. Comparatively, the role of income is more impactful on fuel consumption patterns in the SL system. Accordingly, this study argues that utilising a livelihood system approach in understanding household energy consumption behaviour allows us to design energy policies and innovative and customised clean energy sources that better fit rural livelihood systems.

Raising Dogs that Bite: How Pastoralists and Breeders Care for Tibetan Mastiffs

Abstract Tibetan pastoralists have long been using dogs as guards. Since the late 1980s, the same dogs, called “Tibetan Mastiffs,” have become valuable pets for Han Chinese consumers. This paper discusses how commodification transforms the value of these dogs, and the care relationship between humans and dogs. Tibetan pastoralists and dogs participate in a reciprocal yet distanced care relationship through raising and guarding, which is not confined to a pursuit of dogs’ ferocity. In contrast, a taste for ferocity prevails in the Tibetan Mastiff market, and breeders care for dogs in a more dedicated, and yet more unilateral and dangerous, way. The unintended consequence of breeders’ care is that they raise dogs that sometimes bite; this is explained based on a process of value transformation in dogs’ guarding abilities, from ethical virtue to commercial price.

The prevalence and associated factors of metabolic syndrome among Tibetan pastoralists in transition from nomadic to settled urban environment

Objective: To study the prevalence and associated factors of metabolic syndrome (MS) among Tibetan pastoralists in transition from high altitude nomadic to settled urbanized environment, especially dietary factors. Methods: The community-based cross-sectional study included 920 Tibetan adults (men 419, women 501). Data were collected using questionnaires, anthropometric measurements, and biomarker tests. Questionnaires included socio-economic, lifestyle characteristics and food consumption. Principal component analysis was used to identify dietary patterns. The risk factors of MS and its components were analyzed by logistic regression model. Results: The prevalence rates of MS and its components were 32.8% (MS), 83.7% (decreased HDL-C), 62.1% (central obesity), 36.7% (elevated blood pressure), 11.8% (elevated TG), and 7.9% (elevated blood glucose), respectively. The prevalence of overweight was 31.2%, obesity 30.3%. Multivariate analysis showed smoking was associated factor for both of decreased HDL-C (OR=1.239, 95%CI: 1.025-1.496) and elevated TG (OR=1.277, 95%CI: 1.038-1.571). Alcohol drinking appeared as associated factor of elevated TG (OR=1.426, 95%CI: 1.055-1.927). However, physical activity showed as a protective factor for central obesity, decreased HDL-C, and elevated TG. With the increase of age, the adherence to the urban and western dietary patterns decreased, and that to the pastoral dietary pattern increased. By quintiles of dietary pattern scores, the urban dietary pattern was significantly associated with MS (trend test P=0.016). Conclusions: Tibetan pastoralists had high prevalence of both MS and obesity. Smoking, alcohol drinking, the transition from pastoral dietary pattern to urban dietary pattern and inadequate physical activity served as associated factors for MS and its components.

Culture and Social Norms: Development and Application of a Model for Culturally Contextualized Communication Measurement (MC3M)

Studies of social norms are common in the communication literature and are increasingly focused on cultural dynamics: studying co-cultural groups within national boundaries or comparing countries. Based on the review of the status quo in cross-cultural measurement development and our years of experience in conducting this research among a co-cultural group, this paper describes a Model for Culturally Contextualized Communication Measurement (MC3M) for intercultural and/or cross-cultural communication research. As an exemplar, we report on a program of research applying the model to develop a culturally derived measurement of social norms and the factors impacting the norm-behavior relationship for members of a unique population group (i.e., ethnically Tibetan pastoralists in Western China). The results provide preliminary evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the culturally derived measurements. The implications, benefits, and shortcomings of the MC3M model are discussed. Recommendations for advancing both conceptual and measurement refinement in intercultural and cross-cultural communication research are provided.

The Remaking of Home, Community, and Self: Rangeland Fencing, Resettlement, and the Resilience of Tibetan Pastoralists

The Remaking of Home, Community, and Self: Rangeland Fencing, Resettlement, and the Resilience of Tibetan Pastoralists

Case study of dietary intake of Amdo Tibetan pastoralists in Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in eastern Qinghai, China

Case study of dietary intake of Amdo Tibetan pastoralists in Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in eastern Qinghai, China

Practical Kinship

Abstract This paper assesses enduring values and on-going changes in kin relationships among eastern Tibetan pastoralists. A key finding is the importance of sibling ties, an aspect of kinship life that was overshadowed by earlier historical and anthropological concerns with clans and tribes. The paper begins by reviewing accounts drawn from premodern times, the problematic terms in which these accounts were couched and some of the presuppositions guiding the authors. Next, it discusses government reforms implemented in pastoralist regions beginning in the 1950s and how these reforms have affected personal life and livelihoods. It then considers how long-standing expectations for kin concerning residence and inheritance have combined with new circumstances to create novel household forms and patterns of mutual aid. Brothers and sisters have facilitated adaptations to these new opportunities by providing chains of assistance across the rural–urban divide. Finally, the paper illustrates how focusing on kinship at a personal and practical level can contribute to our understanding of social change.

Inhibitory Effect of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis HFY14 on Diphenoxylate-Induced Constipation in Mice by Regulating the VIP-cAMP-PKA-AQP3 Signaling Pathway.

AimThe naturally fermented yak yogurt of pastoralists in the Tibetan Plateau, China, because of its unique geographical environment and the unique lifestyle of Tibetan pastoralists, is very different from other kinds of sour milk, and the microorganisms it contains are special. Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis HFY14 (LLSL-HFY14) is a new lactic acid bacterium isolated from naturally fermented yak yogurt. The purpose of this study was to study the inhibitory effect of the bacterium on constipation.MethodsConstipation was induced in ICR mice with diphenoxylate, and the constipated mice were treated with LLSL-HFY14. The weight and feces of the mice were visually detected. Colonic tissues were observed on hematoxylin and eosin-stained sections. Serum indices were detected with kits. mRNA expression in the colon was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay.ResultsConstipation caused weight loss, the number of defecation granules, defecation weight, fecal water content decreased, and the first black stool excretion time increased. LLSL-HFY14 alleviated these symptoms, and the effects were similar to those of lactulose (drug). The pathological examination revealed that constipation caused pathological changes in the colon, and LLSL-HFY14 effectively alleviated the disease. LLSL-HFY14 increased serum levels of motilin, gastrin, endothelin, substance P, acetylcholinesterase, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and decreased serum levels of somatostatin in constipated mice. In addition, LLSL-HFY14 upregulated VIP, cAMP, protein kinase A, and aquaporin 3 expression in colonic tissues of constipated mice in a dose-dependent manner.ConclusionLLSL-HFY14 inhibited constipation, similar to lactulose, and has the potential to become a biological agent.

Culture and social norms: Behavioral decisions about grassland conservation among ethnically Tibetan pastoralists

ABSTRACT Conceptions of what is typical (descriptive norms) and socially appropriate (injunctive norms) are constrained by culture. Based on interviews with Tibetan pastoralists in Western China, we examine social norms and behaviors associated with managing domesticated animals. We describe the ways that behavioral decisions are influenced by interpersonal communication and observation of norms, along with ecological, market, and policy forces. Explicit communication about norms occurs primarily under problematic conditions, in times of change or policy introduction. Findings reinforce the relevance of understanding the culturally bound dimensions of social norms and the need to ground theory and research on social influence in intercultural communication concepts.

Collaborative foundations of herding: The formation of cooperative groups among Tibetan pastoralists

The pastoral literature place little emphasis on the cooperative aspect of being a pastoralist. Part of the neglect stems from conflating the livestock owning unit, i.e. the household, with the herding group. Among Tibetan pastoralists, the herding group consist of people and animals from one or several households. They herd in groups because there is an optimal size of the herd concerning daily herding: too few animals and the animals disperse while too many negatively affect grazing efficiency and subsequently livestock survival during winter. The individual household also frees up members for e.g. selling or trading livestock products. Furthermore, group formation makes it possible to split herds into smaller sub-herds that consider differing needs for varying livestock species and age-categories. While herding groups can change both seasonally and annually, they are a fundamental unit for pastoral social organisation because they are concerned with daily cooperation.

Pests, keystone species, and hungry ghosts: the Gesar epic and human-pika relations on the Tibetan Plateau

For over half a century, the Chinese government has carried out large-scale poisoning campaigns on the Tibetan Plateau in an effort to exterminate the plateau pika, which is viewed as a pest that competes with livestock and causes grassland degradation. Since the 1990s, an ecological counternarrative has emerged in which pikas are keystone species rather than pests, and indicators rather than prime causes of grassland degradation. Virtually ignored in this debate are the ways in which Tibetan pastoralists understand and relate to pikas. We investigate Tibetan analytics of what pikas are, and what draws them to specific sites, based on interviews and observations in two pastoral communities, as well as readings of the Epic of King Gesar. Performed by bards since the twelfth century, the epic is grounded in the cultural milieu of Tibetan nomadic society and continues to be an important part of everyday life. As such, it shapes Tibetan analytics, a term we use to refer to forms of reason that cannot be reduced to ‘cultural belief.’ Because large numbers of pikas, as hungry ghosts, are drawn to places where the essence or fertility of the earth has been depleted, causing irritation to territorial deities, Tibetan practices include rituals to feed hungry ghosts, appease territorial deities, and return treasures to restore the fertility of the earth. Bringing Tibetan analytics together with proposals for political ontology, the article examines the ways in which these different ontologies, or practices of worlding, cooperate and conflict in a context of asymmetric power relations and non-liberal recognition of difference. This approach takes seriously both the agency of the nonhuman as well as human difference, while rejecting notions of rigidly bounded ontologies.

The case of the disappearance of Tibetan sheep from the village of Charo in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan pastoralists’ decisions, economic calculations, and religious beliefs

Le mode de pâturage dans lequel yaks et moutons tibétains étaient les animaux domestiques dominants qui pâturaient sur le plateau tibétain a récemment changé avec la disparition des moutons tibétains de nombreuses régions pastorales. Contrairement aux yaks qui fournissent lait, beurre, fromage, fourrure, viande et aussi un moyen de transport, les moutons ne sont utilisés que pour leur viande. De nombreux pasteurs-nomades interrogés sur le lieu de l’enquête où une seule maisonnée continuait à élever des moutons ont affirmé qu’en dépit de la rentabilité supérieure des moutons par rapport aux yaks, ils ont choisi de garder ces derniers et d’abandonner l’élevage de moutons. Quelles sont les raisons qui ont conduit ces Tibétains à abandonner l’élevage de moutons, alors qu'ils estiment ces animaux être l'un des moyens les plus rentables de gagner leur vie ? Bien que de nombreux éleveurs aient cité des raisons similaires à celles énumérées (pénurie de prairies et d'ouvriers, entre autres) dans d'autres recherches menées sur le même sujet, des entretiens approfondis suggèrent des raisons plus complexes à ce changement, dont la force des sensibilités religieuses. Les pasteurs-nomades font une distinction entre le péché lié à l'élevage des yaks et celui lié à l’élevage des moutons. Associé à d'autres facteurs, notamment les revenus monétaires, l'investissement de travail et la vulnérabilité aux catastrophes naturelles et aux prix du marché, les calculs religieux associés au concept de péché jouent, à divers degrés, un rôle important dans les décisions prises au sujet du bétail.

A multifaceted interdependence. Tibetan pastoralists and their animals

Cet article discute des relations à facettes multiples entre les pasteurs nomades tibétains des provinces du Sichuan et Qinghai et leurs animaux domestiques. Il montre la façon dont ces pasteurs nomades organisent leur vie autour de leurs animaux et trouvent un équilibre, d’une part, entre les besoins de leur maisonnée et leurs capacités de travail et, d’autre part, les besoins de leurs animaux en matière de soins, dans le but d’arriver à une symbiose économiquement productive. Cet article discute aussi les contraintes sur la gestion des troupeaux entraînées par les politiques gouvernementales concernant l’utilisation des terres, les événements météorologiques sévères qui tuent de nombreux animaux, ainsi que des stratégies utilisées par les pasteurs nomades pour reconstruire les troupeaux après de tels événements. Finalement, l’article présente la pratique de « libérer » certains animaux en tant que tsetar, c’est à dire de les rendre interdits de vente et d’abattage dans le but de compenser les péchés commis par les membres de la maisonnée et d’atténuer les malchances diverses. Cette pratique reflète un mélange d’attitudes (pragmatique, symbolique et émotionnelle) dont font preuve les pasteurs nomades de l’est du Tibet à l’égard de leurs animaux au milieu desquels ils vivent, souligne leur dévouement aux principes bouddhiques ainsi que leurs idées quant à la façon dont les animaux domestiques peuvent améliorer leur capital spirituel et leur réputation.

Comparison of social complexity in two independent pastoralist societies

Pastoralists rely on networks of cooperating households containing relatives and others to help with production and various other daily activities. To understand how socioecological differences and commonalities affect different social networks, we compared cooperative decision-making using gift games for 755 people working in herding groups across six sites in two countries (Saami areas in Norway and Tibetan areas in China). We found that members of the same herding group received more gifts from each other. Most variance in gift-giving between study sites was due to differences in the effects of relatedness. Tibetan herders were more likely than Saami herders to give gifts to closer relatives belonging to geographically distant herding groups. Also, stated reasons of giving gifts were different in the two societies: kin and wealth (measured by herd size) were more important among Tibetan pastoralists, while reciprocity was more important among Saami. Social ties within and beyond the family as well as the centrality of herding groups within social networks are general patterns of social organization favoring cooperation among pastoralists. Pastoralists around the world have independently developed social institutions built around cooperative herding units, known as siidas in Norway and ru skor in China. Our study investigates how kin and non-kin, in the same herding group or belonging to other groups, are associated with cooperation. Our results show that communities in both countries exhibit similar social pattern in terms of who they chose to give gifts to, despite differences in socioeconomic status and culture. Most of the variance in cooperation occurred between sites, primarily due to the effect of kinship. Members of the same herding group were preferred recipients of gifts, regardless of kinship, although closer kin were more likely to receive gifts. The stated reasons for giving were different in the two sites: siidas prioritized reciprocity whereas ru skor preferred kin and less wealthy herders. We discuss that ecology should be taken into consideration in understanding social behaviors, even if under similar subsistence system.

Major dietary patterns and their relationship to obesity among urbanized adult Tibetan pastoralists.

This study investigated major dietary patterns and their relationship to obesity among urbanized Tibetan pastoralists. Using a cross-sectional design, this study assessed 782 urbanized Tibetan pastoralists aged 18-84 y. A food frequency questionnaire and anthropometric measurements were conducted in 2018. Principal component analysis was used to identify dietary patterns. Logistic regression was applied to compare the risks for overweight (BMI >=24 kg/m2), obesity (BMI >=28 kg/m2), and central obesity (waist circumference >=80 cm for women and >=85 cm for men) across quintiles of dietary pattern scores after controlling for gender, age, education, medical insurance, smoking status, alcohol consumption and physical activity. This study identified three major dietary patterns: an urban pattern characterized by high intake of vegetables, tubers/roots, and refined carbohydrates; a western pattern characterized by sugary drinks, snacks, and desserts; and a pastoral pattern characterized by tsamba (roasted Tibetan barley), Tibetan cheese, and buttered/milk tea. Subjects in the highest quintile of urban pattern scores were more likely to be overweight (OR=2.58, 95% CI 1.48-4.49) (p-for-trend=0.001), obese (2.94, 1.57-5.49) (p-for-trend=0.001), and centrally obese (1.94, 1.12-3.36) (p-for-trend=0.019) compared to those in the lowest quintile with confounders controlled. The western dietary pattern was positively associated with overweight (p-for-trend=0.037). No clear association was observed for the pastoral dietary pattern. Urban and western dietary patterns independently predict the likelihood of being overweight. Improved nutrition education may contribute to healthier eating behaviors, thus reducing or preventing obesity.

“I am concerned with the future of my children”: the project economy and shifting views of education in a Tibetan pastoral community

ABSTRACTTibetan pastoralists have been subject to large-scale state-led development policies over the past three decades. The provisioning of institutionalized state schooling, in particular, has all along been part and parcel of these development projects, including urbanization and resettlement initiatives. However, for a variety of reasons, the promotion of schooling in Tibetan pastoral areas has been a challenge since the first Maoist efforts in 1950s. By focusing on a case study of a Buddhist monk’s persistent effort to build a primary school in his home village in the eastern region of Tibet in 1990, and on how Tibetan villagers’ views of him and his school project have changed over time, this paper examines the nexus of relationships between schooling, and social and cultural changes in pastoral Tibet. I also aim to relate Tibetan pastoralists’ shifting values of schooling to the larger social and political context, particularly the ubiquitous Chinese xiangmu (project) economy and Tibetan pastoralists’ ever-increasing dependence on the state. This paper argues that although state schooling is highly contested, it has been one of the driving forces of social change in Tibetan pastoral areas today.

Translating ecological migration policy: a conjunctural analysis of Tibetan pastoralist resettlement in China

ABSTRACTThis paper analyzes the transmission of China’s Ecological Migration Policy from the central government down to Tibetan villages and townships for implementation. It examines the specific ways through which the policy is translated from Chinese to Tibetan and communicated through various local dialects to concerned pastoralists. In order to achieve the Ecological Migration Policy’s purported objectives of environmental conservation, livelihood improvement, and urbanization, township government officials at the grassroots level mistranslate and miscommunicate policy meanings to villagers to render an otherwise unfeasible, impractical policy implementable on the ground. Tibetan pastoralists actively engage with this resettlement project to fulfill their desires and aspirations for accessing healthcare and educational services in urban areas. However, this pursuit of legibility is induced by the state’s negligence of rural pastoralist life and elimination of alternative educational facilities in rural communities. Both negligence and elimination of educational facilities in rural areas concentrate and increase investments in education and healthcare in urban settlements. These conjunctures ultimately drive Tibetan pastoralists to “choose” their only available option, to resettle in urban townships.