Thyroid Dysfunction In Pregnant Women Research Articles

Evaluation of thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women with gestational and pre-gestational diabetes

The aim of this study was to investigate thyroid function tests in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) and pre-gestational DM and control group. Methodology : There were 61 pregnant diabetic women in study group and 35 pregnant women in control group. Serum T4, T3, T3RU, FTI, TSH and Anti TPO Ab were assessed in each person. Results : About 36% of patients had GDM and 64% pre-gestational DM. Thyroid dysfunction was detected in 18% of study group compared with 8.6% of control group (P = 0.2). There was Thyroid dysfunction in 4.5% of GDM and 25.6% of pregestational DM (P = 0.045). There was no statistically significant difference between thyroid dysfunction in GDM group and control group (P=0.99).27% of GDM and 36% of pregestational DM and 23% of control group had positive titer of Anti TPO Ab without statistically significant differences among the three groups. Conclusion : Thyroid dysfunction is prevalent in women with pre-gestational DM so, thyroid function should be evaluated in these patients during pregnancy. Rate of thyroid dysfunction in GDM patients is similar to normal pregnant control women. High prevalence of positive titer of TPO Ab was seen in diabetic and non-diabetic pregnant women.

Is measurement of maternal serum TSH sufficient screening in early pregnancy? A case for more randomized trials

During the past decades, observational studies have demonstrated a relationship between thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy and a range of adverse outcomes in both mother and offspring. However, results from the few randomized trials of screening for thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women have not shown any benefit for women or their children. Before implementing screening in pregnant women at population level, randomized trials are needed to show that screening with subsequent intervention is effective for mothers or children. Here, we review the literature and argue that the findings from existing trials are not conclusive. Until such conclusive evidence from randomized trials is available, the best advice to the clinician is to screen only high-risk pregnant women. Such women, for example those with symptoms or a history of thyroid problems, should be screened using trimester-specific reference ranges for thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels. We recommend new prospective randomized trials that combine different thyroid parameters as the screening tool, apply trimester-specific ranges for thyroid hormones and examine whether screening and intervention during the first trimester of pregnancy will improve neuropsychological outcomes in the offspring.

Detection of thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women: Universal screening is justified

There is a controversy among different scientific societies in relation to the recommendations on whether universal screening for the detection of thyroid dysfunction during gestation should be performed or not. Although various studies have shown an association between subclinical hypothyroidism or hypothyroxinemia with obstetric problems and/or neurocognitive impairment in the offspring, no evidence on the possible positive effects of treatment of such conditions with thyroxin has been demonstrated so far. However, there is a general agreement about the need for treatment of clinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy and the risks of not doing so. Because it is a common, easily diagnosed and effectively treated disorder without special risk, the working Group of Iodine Deficiency Disorders and Thyroid Dysfunction of the Spanish Society of Endocrinology and Nutrition and Spanish Society of Gynaecology and Obstetrics recommends an early evaluation (before week 10) of thyroid function in all pregnant women. Given the complex physiology of thyroid function during pregnancy, hormone assessment should be performed according to reference values for each gestational trimester and generated locally in each reference laboratory. Thyrotropin determination would be sufficient for screening purposes and only if it is altered, free thyroxin or total thyroxin would be required. Adequate iodine nutrition is also highly recommended before and during pregnancy to contribute to a normal thyroid function in the pregnant women and fetus.

High prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women.

Maternal thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy has been associated with adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes. This prospective study evaluates the prevalence of these disorders in pregnant women. Serum levels of TSH, free T4 (fT4), and thyroperoxidase antibodies (TPO-Ab) were measured in 951 women at different gestational ages of pregnancy. Trimester-specific reference ranges for TSH were used to classify pregnant women into five groups: 1) Overt hypothyroidism (OH); 2) Subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH); 3) Isolated hypothyroxinemia (IH); 4) Low TSH (isolated or associated with high fT4); and 5) Normal. A classification was made also according to the lower and upper ranges provided by the manufacturer for thyroid hormones. Pregnant women who were at a high risk of developing thyroid disease were identified. Altogether, 117 women (12.3%) had hypothyroidism and 25 (2.6%) had low TSH. The prevalence of both OH and SCH was higher in the high-risk group than in the low-risk group, but 17.9% of women with hypothyroidism were classified at low-risk. A family history of thyroid disorders and TPO-Ab positivity increased the risk of SCH. Using non-pregnant reference range for TSH, 10.6% of women were misclassificated. The high prevalence of hypothyroidism observed in this study suggests that accurate thyroid screening with trimester specific reference ranges should be warranted, particularly in areas with mild to moderate iodine deficiencies.

Iodine deficiency among Belgian pregnant women not fully corrected by iodine-containing multivitamins: a national cross-sectional survey

Low iodine intake during pregnancy may cause thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women and their newborn. In the present study, iodine status among a nation-wide representative sample of Belgian pregnant women in the first and third trimester of pregnancy was determined, and determinants of iodine status were assessed 1 year after the introduction of bread fortified with iodised salt. The women were selected according to a multistage proportionate-to-size sampling design. Urine samples were collected and a general questionnaire was completed face to face with the study nurse. The median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) among pregnant women (n 1311) was 124.1mg/l and 122.6 mg/g creatinine when corrected for urinary creatinine. The median UIC in the first trimester (118.3 mg/l) was significantly lower than that in the third trimester (131.0 mg/l) but significantly higher than among non-pregnant women (84.8 mg/l). Iodine-containing supplement intake was reported by 60.8% of the women and 57.4% of the women took this supplement daily. The risk of iodine deficiency was significantly higher in younger women, in women not taking iodine-containing supplements, with low consumption of milk and dairy drinks and during autumn. Women with a higher BMI had a higher risk of iodine deficiency but the risk was lower in women who reported alcohol consumption. The median UIC during pregnancy indicates iodine deficiency in Belgium and some women are at a higher risk of deficiency. The current low iodine intake in women of childbearing age precludes the correction of iodine deficiency in pregnant women supplemented with multivitamins containing 150 mg iodine as recommended.

Treatment and screening of hypothyroidism in pregnancy: results of a European survey

Maternal hypothyroidism in pregnancy is associated with several adverse outcomes. The Endocrine Society Guidelines for the management of thyroid diseases in pregnancy were published in 2007; however, impact of the guidelines in routine clinical practice is unknown. Therefore, we have carried out a survey of members of the European Thyroid Association (ETA) to study current practices relating to the management of hypothyroidism in pregnancy. In December 2010, we emailed an electronic questionnaire survey based on clinical case scenarios to 605 members of the ETA. Responses from 190 clinician members (from 28 European countries) were analyzed. For a pregnant woman with newly diagnosed overt hypothyroidism, most responders initiated a full dose of l-thyroxine (l-T(4)). For a woman with hypothyroidism planning pregnancy, 50% recommended increasing the dose of l-T(4) as soon as pregnancy is confirmed, whilst 43% favored testing thyroid function before adjusting the dose. Responders used diverse combinations of tests to monitor the dose of l-T(4). The target of thyroid function tests that responders aimed to achieve with l-T(4) was also inconsistent. Forty-two percent responders or their institutions screened all pregnant women for thyroid dysfunction, 43% performed targeted screening of only the high-risk group, whilst 17% did not carry out systemic screening. Timing of the screening, tests used, and criteria for starting treatment and monitoring were variable. There is wide variation in the clinical practice relating to the treatment and screening of hypothyroidism during pregnancy in Europe.

Monitoring Levothyroxine Dose during Pregnancy: A Prospective Study

Problem statement: Thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women can influence the outcome for mother and fetus at all stages of pregnancy. As the fetus is entirely dependent on maternal thyroid hormones for its development until about 13 weeks of gestation, it is important to ensure adequate thyroxine substitution in pregnant women during the first trimester. The aim of this prospective study was to explore whether hypothyroidic pregnant women are adequately levothyroxine (L-T4) substituted in early pregnancy. Approach: During March 2008 to July 2009, 93 pregnant females with thyroid diseases were followed at the outpatient department of INMAS. At the first visit 86 patients were on L-T4 substitution for hypothyroidism. Seven other patients had hyperthyroidism. The patients were regularly followed every 4-8 weeks during pregnancy for dose adjustment. Before each visit serum Free Thyroxine (FT4) and TSH concentrations were determined. Results: Of the 86 patients on thyroxine substitution for hypothyroidism 56 (65.12%) had serum TSH values within the reference range at their first TSH test. Thirty (34.9%) had TSH values outside the reference range. In 5 patients TSH was <0.27 μIU mL-1. Fifty (58.13%) of the patients had to increase their thyroxine dose during pregnancy. The initial L-T4 increase at the first evaluation during pregnancy was 17.46±30.8 μg day-1. In the 50 patients who needed to increase L-T4, 26% reached a definitive therapeutic dosage within 12th week of pregnancy, 24% within the 20th week and 50% within the 31st week. Conclusion/Recommendations: In 34.9% of pregnant women on L-T4 substitution for hypothyroidism, serum TSH values were abnormal when first tested and they had increased chances of fetal loss if not treated timely. Thyroid function in pregnant women on thyroxine substitution should be monitored as soon as pregnancy has been confirmed and carefully followed during pregnancy.

Thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and evaluation of its results

Objectives: In this study, we aim to evaluate obstetric outcomes of the women with thyroid dysfunction than the normal pregnant women. Materials and methods: In our study, 633 women between the ages of 18 to 35 who admitted to Kovancılar State Hospital Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic for pregnancy follow-up between January 2010 and January 2011 were evaluated. Serum thyroid - stimulating hormones (TSH), free tri-iyodotironin (T3), free thyroxine (T4) levels for all patients were studied. Antithyroidal peroxidase (anti-TPO) and Anti-thyroglobulin (anti-Tg) parameters were measured if they were necessary. The relationship between thyroid functions and complications such as eclampsia, preeclampsia, maternal anemia, postpartum hemorrhage, fetal anomalies, shoulder dystocia, neonatal hypoglycemia was examined. Results: Hypothyroidism was found 18 of cases and hyperthyroidism was found 4 of them. The mean age of patients in the study was 26.42 (± 8.42). The mean values were 1.86 ± 0.19 μIU/mL for TSH, 1.15 ± 0.29 ng/mL for free T4 and 2.90 ± 0.31 pg/mL for free T3 respectively. Hashimoto's thyroiditis (9 cases, 50 %) was the most frequent etiology for patients with hypothyroidism. Other etiologic factors for hypothyroidism were found to be for 4 cases as (22.2%), iatrogenic (previously undergone thyroidectomy) and 5 cases as (37.8%) a lack of iodine. Maternal anemia was observed in 5 (27.78%) cases with hypothyroidism. Preeclampsia was observed 16.67% in patients with hypothyroidism. Conclusion: Observed thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women may cause serious maternal and fetal complications. For disorders of thyroid function during pregnancy, to provide the necessary treatment at the appropriate time is important to prevent complications of mother and fetus.

Thyroid and pregnancy.

Thyroid and pregnancy.

Disfunción tiroidea en las pacientes abortadoras. ¿Existen argumentos para el cribado?

Objectives Normal thyroid function is crucial for adequate maternal and fetal development in pregnancy. There is solid evidence of the pernicious effects of thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy for both mother and fetus. One of these effects is miscarriage and recurrent pregnancy losses. Nevertheless, there is no general agreement on the advisability of screening for thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women, even when there is a previous history of pregnancy loss. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction (including anti-thyroid autoimmunity without abnormal T3/T4/TSH levels) in patients with spontaneous abortion. Subjects and methods T3-T4-TSH-antithyroid antibodies (thyroglobulin and thyroperoxidase) were determined at diagnosis in 132 consecutive women with spontaneous miscarriage. Results Nearly 25% of the patients had undiagnosed and untreated thyroid disturbance. Conclusion The results obtained suggest that the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in patients with spontaneous miscarriage is higher than previously reported in our environment.

Prevalence of abnormal maternal TPO-Ab and TSH levels in pregnant women in the Malaysian Population

Background: Undiagnosed thyroid disease is a common problem with significant public health implications. This is especially true during pregnancy, when the health of the mother and child can be adversely affected by abnormal thyroid function. Measurement of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and antibodies to thyroid peroxidase (TPO-Ab) are two important ways to assess maternal thyroid status. Objective: The purpose of our evaluation was to determine the prevalence of abnormal thyroid function by testing a population of pregnant women at the Obstetric Clinic, University Malaya Medical Center, Malaysia. Method: We assayed serum samples (n= 609) of pregnant partum women (age range 20-45) on the Abbott AxSYM platform using a 3 rd generation TSH assay and TPO-Ab. Results outside the manufacturer’s reference range (TSH= 0.47-4.64 μIU/mL; TPO Ab Result: Overall prevalence for an abnormal test result was 21.3%. Across the different age groups, the average prevalence for an abnormal result was TSH=10.3% and TPO-Ab=10.8%. If, as in the NACB thyroid testing guidelines, a more narrow TSH reference range (0.4-2.5 μIU/mL) was applied to our data, the prevalence of abnormal TSH results increased to 14.9%. Conclusion: Our data show a high prevalence of abnormal thyroid function in this population, and suggest that routine screening of pregnant women for thyroid dysfunction may be appropriate in addition to routine prenatal care.

Recommendations for thyroxin therapy during pregnancy

Disorders of thyroid function are common among women of childbearing age. It is known that thyroid physiology normally alters during gestation. Clinicians, often, overlook thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women because of nonspecific symptoms and the hypermetabolic state of normal pregnancy. After all, the clinician must consider thyroid dysfunction as a possibility in pregnant women and differentiate normal physiological changes from thyroid disease. Abnormalities of maternal thyroid function can affect the fetus directly or indirectly. The fetal thyroid begins to produce thyroid hormones after the first trimester, so the critical thyroid hormones for fetal brain development must be supplied by the mother. It is of interest how sensitive the fetus is to decreases in circulating maternal thyroid hormones and in maternal thyrotoxicosis. Over recent years there has been an expansion of knowledge regarding thyroid disease in pregnancy and subsequently controversies about management of thyroid disease in pregnancy. This review focuses on maternal overt and subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy, suggesting guidelines for appropriate treatment for this disease due to its frequency, especially the subclinical manifestation, and the controversy that exists. It also reviews the complications in mother and fetus when hypothyroidism is untreated. On the other hand, with respect to other differing opinions, some recommendations should be given by the authors about supplying thyroxin to pregnant women with thyroid disease other than hypothyroidism.

Diagnosing Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnant Women: Is Case Finding Enough?

Diagnosing Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnant Women: Is Case Finding Enough?

Hypothyroidism and chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in the pregnant state: maternal aspects

Hypothyroidism during pregnancy is associated with adverse outcomes that can be ameliorated or prevented by adequate therapy with thyroxine. Currently, there are no guidelines for universal screening for thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women or in women of reproductive age. Therefore, it is important to recognize those groups of women who may be at higher risk for development of hypothyroidism so that serum TSH testing may be performed with appropriate initiation of thyroxine therapy. In addition, the thyroxine therapy of women with established hypothyroidism should be optimized prior to conception and during pregnancy when the thyroxine dosage requirement generally increases early in gestation. The diverse etiologies of maternal hypothyroidism may require different increments in thyroxine dose during pregnancy, and generally the postpartum dosage requirement returns to pre-pregnancy levels.

Hypothyroidism and chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in the pregnant state: maternal aspects

Hypothyroidism during pregnancy is associated with adverse outcomes that can be ameliorated or prevented by adequate therapy with thyroxine. Currently, there are no guidelines for universal screening for thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women or in women of reproductive age. Therefore, it is important to recognize those groups of women who may be at higher risk for development of hypothyroidism so that serum TSH testing may be performed with appropriate initiation of thyroxine therapy. In addition, the thyroxine therapy of women with established hypothyroidism should be optimized prior to conception and during pregnancy when the thyroxine dosage requirement generally increases early in gestation. The diverse etiologies of maternal hypothyroidism may require different increments in thyroxine dose during pregnancy, and generally the postpartum dosage requirement returns to pre-pregnancy levels.

Management of hypo- and hyperthyroidism during pregnancy.

Pregnancy has profound effects on the regulation of thyroid function, and on thyroidal functional disorders, that need to be recognized, carefully assessed and correctly managed. Relative hypothyroxinemia and goitrogenesis may occur in healthy women who reside in areas with restricted iodine intake, strongly suggesting that pregnancy constitutes a stimulatory challenge for the thyroid. Overt thyroid dysfunction occurs in 1-2% of pregnant women, but mild forms of dysfunction (both hyper- and hypothyroidism) are probably more prevalent and frequently remain unrecognized. Alterations of maternal thyroid function have important implications for fetal and neonatal development. In recent years, particular attention has been drawn to the potential risks for the developing fetus due to maternal hypothyroxinemia during early gestation. Concerning hyperthyroidism, the two main causes of thyrotoxicosis in the pregnant state are Graves' disease and gestational transient thyrotoxicosis (GTT). The natural history of Graves' disease is altered during pregnancy, with a tendency for exacerbation during the first trimester, and amelioration during the second and third trimesters. The natural history of the disorder must be considered when treating patients, since antithyroid drugs cross the placenta and can directly affect fetal thyroid function. Algorithms to routinely screen pregnant women for thyroid dysfunction have been proposed in recent years, but these have not yet been implemented systematically, nor have they been the subject of cost-effectiveness analyses.

Effects of Screening for Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnant Women, Linked to Neonatal Screening for Congenital Hypothyroidism

Effects of Screening for Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnant Women, Linked to Neonatal Screening for Congenital Hypothyroidism