Three-level Hierarchical Linear Model Research Articles

Between- and within-person contributions of simple reaction time to executive function skills in early childhood

This study tested whether the bivariate association between simple reaction time (SRT) and executive function (EF) performance that has been observed in early childhood represented a between- and/or within-person association. Up to three repeated assessments (i.e., fall, winter, and spring assessments from September to May) were available for 282 preschool-aged children (Mage = 4.2 years; 54% female) who participated in the Kids Activity and Learning Study. A series of three-level hierarchical linear models (repeated measures nested in child; child nested in classroom) was used to disaggregate the observed variation in EF and SRT into between-classroom, between-person, and within-person components. EF composite scores were regressed on two indicators of SRT, which reflected between- and within-child sources of variation, along with demographic covariates (child age, gender, and parental education). Both between-person (b = −21.2, p < 0.001) and within-person (b = −13.2, p < 0.001) sources of SRT variation were uniquely related to EF performance. These results are discussed with respect to interest in using SRT as a proxy for foundational cognitive processes that contribute to EF task performance in early childhood, including the appropriateness of using SRT to refine EF task scores.

A three-level hierarchical linear model analysis of the effect of school principals’ factors on primary school students’ learning achievements in Burkina Faso

School principals play an important role in student performance through personnel management, allocation of resources an engagement of education stakeholders. Employing rigorous three-level hierarchical linear model, this paper investigates how principals’ factors are related to students’ learning achievements in Burkina Faso, and how the effects of these factors vary depending on schools or communes. Results suggest that being an effective principal is not related with gender. However, a relevant preparation program is associated with higher students’ performance. Furthermore, the quality of school management, community management practices and in-service pedagogical training for principals can contribute to improve students’ outcome, but under the condition of a school context with necessary resources and support from stakeholders. Implications of the findings for school effectiveness research and education policy were discussed.

Therapist effects in yearlong psychodynamic therapy: An exploratory study.

A large body of research indicates that therapists can have a strong impact on treatment outcome, but little is known about the relationship between therapist effects and treatment phase. Our objective was to examine the interactive effect of therapist effectiveness and treatment phase on the outcome of 1year of dynamic therapy. Therapists' effectiveness scores were defined as the extent of change for each therapist on the OQ-45 scores across their clients at five time points. The sample included 24 therapists who conducted psychodynamic therapy with 65 clients in a naturalistic setting. A three-level hierarchical linear model was applied. In accordance with the hypotheses, a significant main effect was found for effectiveness (estimate=1.69, p<.05), for the two-way interactions between effectiveness and time (estimate=1.36, p<.01), and for effectiveness and initial severity of symptoms (estimate=-0.02, p<.05). Simple slope analysis was conducted showing that among the less effective therapists, no significant change in outcome was found as time progressed; among the more effective therapists, outcome improved as time progressed. In addition, therapists were more influential in the treatments of clients with low initial severity. Our findings lend some support to the notion that therapist effects become increasingly influential as therapy progresses. The findings highlight the need for further research into changes in the magnitude of therapists' effect in various phases of therapy. Furthermore, the severity level of the initial symptoms of the client should be taken into account.

Psychotherapy of Dependent Personality Disorder: The Relationship of Patient–Therapist Interactions to Outcome

Objective So far, only a few studies have focused on psychotherapy for Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD). DPD is marked by a repetitive pattern of efforts aiming at maintaining close relationships, which may present as a lack of assertiveness and as a difficulty in making routine decisions. The present study aims at exploring processes of change taking place during the working phase of a clarification-oriented psychotherapy (COP) by focusing on the in-session patient–therapist interaction, as it changes during treatment and their links with treatment outcome. Methods: N = 74 patients with DPD were recruited in a naturalistic setting; they underwent long-term COP. Sessions 15, 20 and 25 were video- or audio-recorded and analyzed using the Process-Content-Relationship Scale, an observer-rated instrument that measures the quality of the interaction processes from patient’s and therapist’s perspectives. Therapy outcomes were assessed with the Personality Inventory – Dependency Subscale, Beck Depression Inventory, Inventory of Interpersonal Problems and Self-efficacy Scale at intake and discharge of therapy. Three-level Hierarchical Linear Modeling was applied to test the hypotheses. Results: Improvement in interaction processes was observed in all patient’s and therapist’s variables over the sessions 15, 20, 25. Overall, this increase in quality of interaction process was unrelated with outcome, but decrease in dependency traits was predicted by increase in therapist’s quality of relationship offer, understanding of content and directivity over the course of the working phase of COP. Conclusions: Studying interaction processes in DPD provides an initial understanding of differential roles of potential mechanisms of change in effective treatment.

Investigating the relation of perceived teacher unfairness to science achievement by hierarchical linear modeling in 52 countries and economies

This study used the data from the 2015 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to examine the relationship between perceived teacher unfairness and science achievement with a three-level hierarchical linear model (HLM) as the analytic approach. Data of 188,104 students from 4895 schools in 52 countries and economies were used for analysis. After accounting for student gender, student-, school-, and country-level economic, social, and cultural status, and students’ non-cognitive outcomes, the results of HLM analysis showed that perceived teacher unfairness negatively predicted science achievement with a modest effect size. The possible explanations of the results and the practical implication of the findings were discussed.

Impact of social support on psychosocial symptoms and quality of life in cancer patients: results of a multilevel model approach from a longitudinal multicenter study

Background: This prospective multicenter study aimed to investigate the courses of positive support (PS) and detrimental interaction (DI), two different aspects of social support, and the relation between social support and psychosocial distress and/or health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in a large sample of patients with different cancers.Methods: For this observational study, we enrolled adult patients with cancer from 13 comprehensive cancer centers (CCCs) in Germany. We included a total of 1087 patients in our analysis. We assessed the outcomes via standardized self-report questionnaires at three measurement points: at admission for acute care (T1), 6 (T2) and 12 months (T3) thereafter. Our outcome variables included PS and DI, depression and anxiety symptoms, distress, mental quality of life (MQoL) and physical QoL (PQoL). Data were analyzed using three-level hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) and group-based trajectory modeling.Results: During the first year after the cancer diagnosis, both PS and DI decreased in our sample. Baseline depression symptom severity was a significant predictor of PS and DI. Further analyses revealed significant associations between PS, DI and the course of depression and anxiety symptoms, and MQoL. PS buffered the negative effects of DI with regards to these variables. Low DI was associated with better PQoL, whereas PS was not. In general, the impact of social support on psychosocial outcomes was weak to moderate.Conclusions: Our findings provide evidence for the influence of PS and DI on psychosocial symptoms and HRQOL, and emphasize the importance of psycho-oncological interventions that strengthen PS and prevent or reduce DI for patients with cancer and their relatives.

Administrative hierarchy, housing market inequality, and multilevel determinants: a cross-level analysis of housing prices in China

Numerous studies have examined the determinants of housing prices in Chinese cities. However, most of them ignored the hierarchical structural characteristics of housing prices because of the use of ordinary least squares and hedonic pricing to model the housing prices for a single city. Therefore, this study explores the multi-level determinants of housing prices and their interactions at different levels. To this end, it proposes a three-level hierarchical linear model (HLM) using observations from 146,099 communities nested in 1120 counties of 31 provinces in China as a case study. The results of the hierarchical linear regression indicate significant variances in average housing prices. This finding suggests HLM to be appropriate when dealing with housing prices inherently nested at multiple geographic levels. Overall, housing values in China are not only determined by accessibility factors but are also driven by multi-level socioeconomic aspects. Among the selected variables, high-speed railway shows a significant positive effect, while ordinary railway shows a significant negative effect on housing values at the community level. At the county level, rural–urban migration and per capita living space have significant positive impacts on housing value. At the province level, the relationship between rural–urban migration and housing prices depends on economic development and urban employment. Similarly, the average wages of urban employment influence the relationship between per capita living space and housing prices. These results suggest that contextual effects exist between the determinants of housing prices at county and province levels.

A multilevel analysis of life satisfaction among secondary school students: Do school-level factors matter?

A significant body of research has examined individual-level factors and, to a lesser extent, country-level factors and their influence on the subjective wellbeing of young people. Although young people spend a substantial proportion of their time in school where they learn and grow, few studies have been undertaken to understand the role of school-level factors in young people's subjective wellbeing. The current study fills this gap by exploring the relationship between school-level factors and subjective wellbeing among a sample of 15-year old young people from the Programme for International Student Assessment 2015. The results of three-level hierarchical linear modelling show that the life satisfaction of students did vary across schools, though the variance was small. All individual-level variables, including demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, social relationships with parents, peers, and teachers, and health-related factors, were shown to significantly relate to the life satisfaction of students. Several school-level variables related to school background characteristics, school resources, and school policies and practices were also significantly related to students' life satisfaction. Country-level variables, including GDP per capita and public expenditure on health and education, were not significant to students' life satisfaction. This study contributes to the current body of knowledge by increasing understanding of school-level factors and their influence on young people's subjective wellbeing.

Does Early Algebra Matter? The Effectiveness of an Early Algebra Intervention in Grades 3 to 5

A cluster randomized trial design was used to examine the effectiveness of a Grades 3 to 5 early algebra intervention with a diverse student population. Forty-six schools in three school districts participated. Students in treatment schools were taught the intervention by classroom teachers during regular mathematics instruction. Students in control schools received only regular mathematics instruction. Using a three-level longitudinal piecewise hierarchical linear model, the study explored the impact of the intervention in terms of both performance (correctness) and strategy use in students’ responses to written algebra assessments. Results show that during Grade 3, treatment students, including those in at-risk settings, improved at a significantly faster rate than control students on both outcome measures and maintained their advantage throughout the intervention.

Depressed and swiping my problems for later: The moderation effect between procrastination and depressive symptomatology on internet addiction

Based on insights from the model of compensatory internet use and emotion regulation theory, this study aimed to explore two possible mechanisms explaining the reliable association between depressive symptomatology and internet addiction: procrastination on the internet and flow experiences online. Data were collected from 529 high school students, with a mean age of 15.2 years (SD = 1.30), enrolled in six schools in a metropolitan region of Chile. Voluntary participants completed self-reported measures of internet addiction, depressive symptomatology, procrastination on the internet, and flow experiences online. A three-level hierarchical linear model was calculated to evaluate the potential moderator effect of flow and procrastination on the relationship between depressive symptomatology and internet addiction. Results revealed that procrastination moderated this relationship while flow experiences online did not. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for research and clinical practice, highlighting the importance of considering the intentions behind internet usage.

Effects of Working Memory, Strategy Use, and Single-Step Mental Addition on Multi-Step Mental Addition in Chinese Elementary Students.

The aim of this paper was to examine the roles of working memory, single-step mental addition skills, and strategy use in multi-step mental addition in two independent samples of Chinese elementary students through different approaches to manipulate two dimensions of task characteristics (the primary task). In Study 1, we manipulated strategy types through the dimension of schema automaticity (whether intermediate sums were 10s) and the dimension of working memory load (WML, two steps versus four steps). A hierarchical linear model (HLM) analysis was conducted at case level, strategy level, and individual level. In Study 2, we manipulated task characteristics through schema automaticity (one-time versus two-time regrouping) and the WML (partial versus complete decomposition). A three-level HLM analysis was applied. The general findings of Study 1 and Study 2 suggested that shorter response time on single-step mental addition corresponded to shorter response time on multi-step mental addition. The use of strategies (from easier to more difficult strategies) negatively predicted response time on multi-step mental addition. Easier strategy was associated with shorter response time on multi-step mental addition. Better phonological loop was associated with shorter response time on multi-step mental addition. The findings in both studies highlighted the important role of phonological loop in mental addition in Chinese children, suggesting that the involvement of a specific subcomponent of working memory in mental arithmetic might be subject to linguistic, instructional, and contextual factors.

Factors related to digital reading achievement: A multi-level analysis using international large scale data

This study aimed to examine which relevant variables were associated with adolescents' digital reading achievement using the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 dataset. A three-level hierarchical linear model was employed to identify significant factors predicting digital reading, controlling for print reading ability, and to examine if the extent of the association remained the same across schools and countries. The results confirmed the importance of navigation, metacognitive summary strategies, attitudes toward ICT, and social online reading activities. Female students, on average, underperformed male students when controlling for other variables. However, the associations between these factors and digital reading varied across schools and countries. Navigation appeared universally predictive in digital reading according to the results of the multilevel models.

Environmental enforcement and compliance in Pennsylvania’s Marcellus shale gas development

The rapid development of shale gas in the United States raises potential concerns about environmental impacts. This paper examines how environmental regulations are enforced in shale gas development in Pennsylvania's Marcellus Shale development and the resulting compliance behaviors, employing the economic literature of crime and punishment as the analytical framework. A three-level hierarchical linear model (HLM) is used to analyze the enforcement and compliance performance of regulators and shale gas operators, respectively, employing data spanning from 2011 to 2017. Significant variation in the environmental non-compliance exists between both wells and operators. The empirical results suggest progressive directions for adjusting environmental enforcement strategies in Pennsylvania and provide implications and references for other regions with similar shale gas ambitions.

Access to Abortion in Central Appalachian States: Examining County of Residence and County‐Level Attributes

Studies of how women's individual characteristics and place of residence are related to variability in gestational age at the time of abortion have not examined county of residence and county-level characteristics. The county level is potentially meaningful, given that county is the smallest geographic unit with policy implications. Data on 38,611 abortions that took place in North Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia in 2012 were used to study the relationship between gestational age and county-level attributes (e.g., metropolitan status and poverty). Three-level hierarchical linear models captured individuals nested in county of residence, clustered by state of residence, and adjusted for individual characteristics and distance traveled to care. Eight percent of the variation in gestational age at abortion was attributable to county-level characteristics. Residents of counties characterized by persistent poverty obtained abortions 2.3 days later in gestation than those from counties not characterized by that level of economic hardship. Women living in nonmetropolitan counties obtained abortions 1.7 days later than those living in metropolitan counties, even after distance traveled and county-level poverty were controlled for. County of residence is relevant to gestational age at the time of abortion for women in these three states. Evidence that county-level attributes are related to access adds insight to the consequences for women when the landscape of abortion service delivery shifts. Integrating county of residence into research on access to abortion services may be critical to capturing disparities in access.

Effect of classroom language diversity on head start ELL and non-ELL children’s social-emotional development

This study used the FACES 2009 cohort to examine the effect of classroom language diversity on the social-emotional development (defined as social skills, approaches to learning, and behavior problems) of the ELL and non-ELL children. A three-level hierarchical linear modeling in which time was nested within the child and the child was nested within the classroom was conducted. The children’s ELL status was determined based on their home language and English proficiency. Results showed that the non-ELL children demonstrated a decline in the developmental trajectory of social skills in the classrooms with high language diversity. On the other hand, the ELL children with English proficiency demonstrated a low trajectory of social skills in the classrooms with low language diversity. These findings suggest that the effect of classroom language diversity on the children’s social-emotional development depends on the children’s language status. Implications and future research are discussed.

Avoidant romantic attachment in adolescence: Gender, excessive internet use and romantic relationship engagement effects.

Romantic development is a distinctive characteristic of puberty. However, a significant proportion of adolescents present with avoidant romantic attachment (ARA) tendencies, which have significant impact on their general adaptation. ARA variations have been suggested in relation to age, gender, engagement with a romantic partner and Excessive Internet Use (EIU) behaviours. In this longitudinal, two-wave study of a normative sample of 515 Greek adolescents at 16 and 18 years, ARA was assessed with the relevant subscale of the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised and EIU with the Internet Addiction Test. A three-level hierarchical linear model found ARA tendencies to decrease between 16 and 18 while engagement in a romantic relationship and EIU were associated with lower and higher ARA tendencies respectively. Gender did not differentiate ARA severity either at the age of 16 or its changes over time. Results highlight the need of adopting a longitudinal-contextualized approach and provide implications for prevention and intervention initiatives in relation to the romantic development of adolescents.

The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Program: Outcomes from a Group Randomized Trial.

This group randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluated the efficacy of the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Program (IY TCM) on student social behavioral and academic outcomes among a large diverse sample of students within an urban context. Participants included 105 teachers and 1817 students in kindergarten to third grade. Three-level hierarchical linear models (HLM) were conducted to examine the overall treatment effects on teacher-reported student behavior and academic outcomes. In addition, multi-level moderation analyses were conducted to examine whether the treatment effects on student outcomes differed by demographic variables and pretest measures of social emotional and disruptive behavior and academics. Findings indicate that IY TCM reduced student emotional dysregulation (d = - 0.14) and increased prosocial behavior (d = 0.13) and social competence (d = 0.13). In addition, students initially lower on measures of social and academic competence demonstrated significant improvements on the same measure at outcome in comparison to similar peers in control classrooms. Practical significance of the findings and implications for schools and policy makers are discussed.

Gender- and school-level correlates of growth in health-related fitness knowledge among US high-school students

Objective: Health-related fitness knowledge holds the potential for physical activity and behavioural changes. The purpose of this retrospective longitudinal study with retrospective data was (a) to examine high-school students’ health-related fitness knowledge growth through the 9th, 10th and 11th grades under one curriculum condition and (b) to examine gender- and school-level correlates of students’ health-related fitness knowledge and its rate of growth. Method: This study used existing data collected by school districts as they implemented the curriculum. Participants were students ( n = 9,883, 49.4% girls) from 40 high schools following the same curriculum. Health-related fitness knowledge performance was assessed annually for 3 years using an online platform. Potential student- and school-level correlates were collected. A three-level hierarchical linear model was used to examine student health-related fitness knowledge growth and its relation to gender- and school-level correlates. Results: The results showed that high-school student health-related fitness knowledge growth was linear during the 3-year period, with an estimated growth rate of 9.14 ± 1.40% per year under the curriculum condition. Girl students had a higher growth rate than boys, holding other factors constant. Other school-level variables were not significant predictors of health-related fitness knowledge. Conclusion: Overall, the curriculum context was conducive to student health-related knowledge growth. The different knowledge growth rate between boys and girls was a possible reason for gender discrepancy at the 11th grade.

MULTILEVEL RELATIONS BETWEEN EXTERNAL ACCOUNTABILITY, INTERNAL ACCOUNTABILITY, AND MATH ACHIEVEMENT: A CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS

External accountability policies have spread fast across various educational systems over the past decades. This research examines the relations of internal and external accountability with students’ math achievement drawing on PISA 2012. With a sample of 44 educational systems, of which external accountability policies were identified, the research conducted three-level hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) analyses. This research found that some internal accountability factors had tighter relations with math achievement, while the relations of external accountability policies with student performance were rather tenuous. However, equity of student math achievement was better ensured under strong accountability systems. The results suggest that policy makers of each country should consider strengths and weaknesses of external accountability in their own educational contexts. Keywords: external accountability, educational equity, internal accountability, math achievement, PISA.

The moderating influence of idea sequence: A re-analysis of the relationship between category switch and latency

Divergent thinking (DT) tests are often used to estimate the potential for creative thinking. They are usually scored for fluency, originality, and flexibility. The last of these is especially important because it allows the person to avoid rigidity and conceptual ruts. Usually, flexibility is operationalized in terms of the absolute number of conceptual categories used by the individual, but occasionally it has been scored in terms of the number of switches rather than the absolute number of categories used. The present study investigated if idea sequence moderates the relationship between category switch and the latency between consecutive ideas. Data were collected through think aloud sessions with four DT tests. These elicited 1408 ideas. A three-level hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) structure indicated that idea sequence moderated the relationship between category switch and latency. Latency tended to be shorter in early ideas than those coming later and it was the highest when a category switch took place in later sections than those occurring earlier. Findings are discussed in terms of creativity assessment and the process of DT.