Threat Appraisal Research Articles

Continue staying in online health platforms or not: the moderating role of threat appraisal

PurposeThis study aims to study the mechanisms and conditions of users' intention to continue to use online health platforms from an information technology (IT) affordance perspective.Design/methodology/approachb This research proposes that a critical affordance effect on an online health platform, users' intention to continue the use of the platform, is affected by five platform affordances via two actualized affordances (i.e. perceived benefits (PBs) and online engagement (OE)). Perceived health threat moderates the effect generated by affordance actualization. A dataset involving 409 users from the “Ping An Health” platform was collected through an online survey and analyzed to validate the research hypotheses.FindingsThe data analysis results confirm that the proposed online health platform affordances affect users' PBs and OE, which influence users' intentions to continue using the platform. Perceived threats (perceived vulnerability (PVU) and perceived severity (PSE)) moderate the relationship between PBs and continuance intention (CI) and between OE and CI.Practical implicationsThe research provides important recommendations for online health platform designers to develop IT affordances that can support users' needs for healthcare services.Originality/valueLimited studies investigated why users continue participating in online diagnosis and treatment. This study provides a new perspective to expand the affordance framework by combining technology features and user health behavior. The study also emphasizes the importance of perceived threats in IT use.

The tendency to appraise stressful situations as more of athreat is associated with poorer health and well-being.

It has been argued that habitually appraising stressful events as more of a threat (i.e., situational demands exceed personal coping resources) may increase one's risk of ill-health (e.g., depression). However, while first theorized 15years ago, little research has tested this assertion. Thus, this study offered a novel test of the associations between trait challenge and threat appraisals and health-related outcomes (i.e., mental health symptomology, psychological well-being, and physical health complaints). Three hundred and ninety-five participants (251 female, 144 male; Mage=22.50years, SD=5.33) completed valid and reliable measures of trait challenge and threat appraisals, mental health (i.e., symptoms of depression and anxiety), well-being (e.g., subjective vitality), and physical health complaints (e.g., respiratory illnesses). Regression analyses revealed that trait challenge and threat appraisals accounted for a significant proportion of variance in all outcomes after controlling for age and gender, with a tendency to appraise stressful events as more of a threat associated with poorer mental health (i.e., greater depression symptomology), well-being (e.g., lower vitality), and physical health (e.g., more respiratory illnesses). Taken together, the findings highlight the importance of trait challenge and threat appraisals for health, although further research is needed using stronger designs (e.g., longitudinal) to enable a more causal understanding.

Examining the Factors That Influence User Information Security Behavior toward COVID-19 Scams

Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, cybercriminals have capitalized on the situation and targeted online users. As a result, there has been a surge in the number of complaints related to new types of scams and fraud that have emerged during the pandemic. This study utilizes Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), Cultivation Theory (CT), and other constructs, including fear, attitude, general security awareness, general security orientation, subjective norms, openness, stress, and conscientiousness, to investigate the user information security behavior (ISB) against COVID-19 scams. The study gathered data from 423 internet users through a cross-sectional survey and used Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to test the conceptual framework. The results indicate that stress, government social media, general security awareness, response efficacy, and attitude were all positive determinants of the users’ ISB. The findings also highlight the impact of emotions, such as stress and fear, as well as government social media, on decision-making during a crisis. Additionally, the study found that the combined effects of the two threat appraisal factors on coping behaviors, which are mediated by fear, and the combined effect of the two coping appraisal factors on coping behaviors, which are mediated by attitude, were significant. However, the subjective norms on ISB did not show any variations and surprisingly, the study found that conscientiousness did not moderate the association between attitude and ISB.

Screening for post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth using the Peritraumatic Distress Inventory

BackgroundPost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following traumatic childbirth may undermine maternal and infant health, but screening for maternal childbirth-related PTSD (CB-PTSD) remains lacking. Acute emotional distress in response to a traumatic experience strongly associates with PTSD. The Peritraumatic Distress Inventory (PDI) assesses acute distress in non-postpartum individuals, but its use to classify women likely to endorse CB-PTSD is unknown. Methods3039 women provided information about their mental health and childbirth experience. They completed the PDI regarding their recent childbirth event, and a PTSD symptom screen to determine CB-PTSD. We employed Exploratory Graph Analysis and bootstrapping to reveal the PDI's factorial structure and optimal cutoff value for CB-PTSD classification. ResultsFactor analysis revealed two strongly correlated stable factors based on a modified version of the PDI: (1) negative emotions and (2) bodily arousal and threat appraisal. A score of 15+ on the modified PDI produced high sensitivity and specificity: 88 % with a positive CB-PTSD screen in the first postpartum months and 93 % with a negative screen. LimitationsIn this cross-sectional study, the PDI was administered at different timepoints postpartum. Future work should examine the PDI's predictive utility for screening women as closely as possible to the time of childbirth, and establish clinical cutoffs in populations after complicated deliveries. ConclusionsBrief self-report screening concerning a woman's emotional reactions to childbirth using our modified PDI tool can detect those likely to endorse CB-PTSD in the early postpartum. This may serve as the initial step of managing symptoms to ultimately prevent chronic manifestations.

Under Pressure: LMX Drives Employee Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior via Threat Appraisals

Under Pressure: LMX Drives Employee Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior via Threat Appraisals

Longitudinal relationships between mental toughness, resilience, cognitive appraisals and perceived performance in competitive soccer goalkeepers

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to examine the influence of the mental toughness (MT) trait on resilience, cognitive appraisals and perceived performance states and (2) to explore dynamic relationships between these states among soccer goalkeepers during a competitive season. Thirty-six soccer goalkeepers from regional to professional levels first voluntarily completed a questionnaire measuring their mental toughness. Subsequently, a single-item approach was used to assess resilience, cognitive appraisals (threat, loss, challenge and benefit) and subjective performance every 2 weeks for 4 months. Results of multilevel analyses showed that mental toughness significantly and positively predicted resilience, which significantly and positively predicted benefit appraisal and negatively predicted threat appraisal. Moreover, subjective performance was significantly and positively predicted by benefit appraisal. Our results also revealed the mediating role of resilience in the relationship between mental toughness and appraisals (threat and benefit) as well as the mediating role of benefit appraisal in the relationship between resilience and subjective performance. Practical applications are proposed to optimize the daily experiences of goalkeepers, such as creating a supportive climate.

Cyber Security Awareness Model (Among Children) Using Protection Motivation Theory: A Review

In recent times, there has been a growing concern regarding children's cyber security due to their increased access to the Internet and exposure to various online threats. This issue has garnered significant attention as it poses a considerable risk to children's safety and well-being. As a result, research on children's cyber security awareness has become an area of rapid growth. To contribute to the understanding of this topic, this paper aims to review the latest findings regarding the application of the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) in developing a Cyber Security Awareness Model for children. The Protection Motivation Theory offers a valuable framework for understanding individuals' motivations and decision-making processes regarding protective behaviors in the face of perceived threats. By applying PMT to children's cyber security awareness, researchers can gain insights into the factors that influence children's motivation to engage in protective actions while navigating the online environment. This review paper will explore and analyze recent studies that have employed the Protection Motivation Theory in developing Cyber Security Awareness Models tailored specifically for children. The models derived from PMT can provide a deeper understanding of children's threat appraisal, including their perception of the severity and vulnerability to online risks. Moreover, the coping appraisal aspect of PMT allows researchers to examine children's evaluation of the effectiveness and feasibility of protective actions, such as employing secure passwords, avoiding sharing personal information, and recognizing potential online dangers. By synthesizing the most recent research findings, this paper aims to contribute to the knowledge base on children's cyber security awareness. Understanding how the Protection Motivation Theory can be applied in the context of children's cyber security will enable the development of effective interventions and educational programs to enhance children's online safety. Ultimately, the goal is to empower children with the necessary skills and knowledge to protect themselves from online threats and make informed decisions while navigating the digital world.

How do self-exempt beliefs affect intentions to quit smoking? An exploration of the mediating role of threat appraisal and coping appraisal

IntroductionNumerous smokers are cognizant of the detrimental effects associated with this habit yet exhibit a persistent reluctance to cease their tobacco consumption. Self-exempt beliefs serve as an obstacle to the cessation of this addictive behavior. This research explored the impact of self-exempt beliefs on the readiness to quit smoking based on the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) model and the mediating roles of threat appraisal and coping appraisal.MethodsSelf-exempt beliefs, PMT constructs, and the intention to quit smoking constituted the theoretical model. The questionnaires were collected from 488 Chinese adult male smokers based on snowball sampling. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was used to examine the underlying factor structure of the pre-designed self-exempt beliefs scale. The reliability, validity, path coefficients, and explanatory power of the model were calculated using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM).Results and discussionThe results showed that : (1) three common factors (skeptic beliefs, bulletproof beliefs, and “worth it” beliefs) with a total of 11 items were retained after EFA; (2) skeptic beliefs and “worth it” beliefs had a significantly negative effect on both threat appraisal and coping appraisal, while bulletproof beliefs did not; (3) bulletproof beliefs had a significantly positive direct impact on intention to quit, “worth it” beliefs had a significantly negative direct impact on intention, while skeptic beliefs had no significantly direct impact on intention; (4) threat appraisal and coping appraisal positively and significantly predicted cessation intention; and (5) threat appraisal and coping appraisal, as two main cognitive processes, acted as full mediations between skeptic beliefs and the intention to quit, as complementary partial mediations between “worth it” beliefs and the intention, and as non-mediation between bulletproof beliefs and the intention. Our findings suggest that efforts to undermine or “prevent” these self-exempt beliefs, particularly “worth it” and skeptic beliefs, may be an effective tactic for health communication interventions for quitting smoking.

Emotional Processes and Performance

This study investigates the interplay between stress perception and its intensity concerning performance in a professional setting. Contrary to our initial hypothesis of an interaction between stress perception and intensity, our results reveal that individuals perceiving stress as a challenge exhibit higher performance levels, while those viewing stress as a threat experience significantly lower performance, irrespective of stress intensity. This underscores the importance of how individuals interpret stress in the workplace. Our findings have crucial implications for management, employees, and human resources, suggesting that fostering a positive perception of stress as a challenge could enhance overall performance.
 Drawing on Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model, stress is viewed as a dynamic relationship between individuals and environmental demands. Stress emerges from the subjective appraisal of events rather than the events themselves. This study distinguishes between threat and challenge appraisals, positing that threat perceptions decrease performance, while challenge perceptions enhance it. Additionally, Hanin's stress intensity theory suggests an optimal performance zone unique to each individual.
 Eighty-five participants (62 men, 25 women) completed a questionnaire assessing stress perception, intensity, and professional performance. Stress perception was manipulated using the Appraisal of Life Events Scale, measuring threat, challenge, and loss. Intensity was assessed with a single item. Professional performance was measured using the Attainment of Sport Achievement Goals Scale.Contrary to expectations, there was no interaction between stress perception and intensity. Threat perception correlated with decreased performance, while challenge perception correlated with increased performance. No significant effects were observed for loss perception. Satisfaction with performance did not align with increased performance levels.
 Our hypothesis of an interaction effect was not supported, highlighting the impact of stress perception on performance. Positive stress appraisal correlated with enhanced performance, aligning with Lazarus and Folkman's appraisal approach. However, high-performance levels did not necessarily translate into satisfaction, potentially influenced by self-critical tendencies associated with positive perfectionism. Limitations include subjective performance measurement and reliance on self-reporting, suggesting the need for future research combining subjective and physiological measures.This study emphasizes the influence of stress perception on workplace performance, urging managers to consider employees' interpretations of situations. Fostering a challenge perception and providing clear goals may enhance performance and well-being, acknowledging the unique responses of individuals to stress.

Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on consumer mobility and recovery from a distance perspective: a mobile phone data application

研究目的在我们的研究中, 为了调查COVID-19大流行期间的旅游出行（例如：酒店访问）, 我们根据保护动机理论制定了三个目标：（1）研究在COVID-19大流行前后美国的旅行距离的变化, （2）在大流行期间识别不同地区的不同旅行模式; 以及（3）探讨影响旅游出行的威胁和应对因素。研究方法我们利用了两个主要数据源。首先, 来自SafeGraph的智能手机数据提供了63,610家美国酒店的酒店特定变量（例如位置和访客计数）以及旅行距离数据。其次, 代表与旅行距离相关的各种因素的州级数据来自COVID-19数据中心和美国人口普查局。我们分析了州级和地区级的旅行距离随时间的变化, 并调查了与这些变化相关的临床、政策和人口因素。研究发现我们的研究结果揭示了不同阶段的实际旅行动态和地区内的差异, 以及在公共卫生风险中塑造旅行模式的健康相关政策和其他外部因素的作用。研究创新我们的研究是第一个利用智能手机数据以及与COVID-19和人口统计数据相关的州级数据, 经验性地研究了旅行距离到酒店作为目的地的变化。我们的研究结果表明, 旅游企业和利益相关者可以通过考虑威胁评估和应对机制来主动调整他们的策略, 这两者都受到健康相关政策等外部因素的影响。

Factors affecting prosocial sharing health-related information on social media during a health crisis: A dual exchanging-protecting model

During a health crisis, prosocial sharing of health-related information (HRI) on social media can help deliver early warnings about new diseases, raise social awareness, exchange support, and spread health policies. Current literature has mainly focused on the factors of general sharing of HRI under normal conditions but neglected those motivations under the health crisis context. This study aims to investigate factors that influence prosocial sharing of HRI on social media during a health crisis. To obtain the objective, this study proposes a dual exchanging-protecting model derived from the fear appeal model and social exchange theory. A partial least squares analysis, carried out on surveyed data of 326 participants, suggested that online users performed two steps of threat appraisal and coping appraisal when they share HRI on social media. Specifically, both health and information risks were found to have impacts on prosocial sharing via motivational factors. Additionally, the motivations of prosocial sharing include both protecting factors (i.e., sharing efficacy, response efficacy) and an exchanging factor (i.e., reciprocity expectation). Our findings offer several theoretical implications and practical contributions for health communicators.

Farmers’ intention to adapt to soil salinity expansion in Fimela, Sine-Saloum area in Senegal: A structural equation modelling approach

Improving farmers’ adaptation behaviour against specific climate change threats has been a global concern. The extant literature on farmers’ adaptation to soil salinity threat has mainly focused on socioeconomic factors, with less emphasis on socio-psychological factors. This study analyses the socio-psychological factors that explain farmers’ intention to adapt to soil salinity using the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), structural equation modelling approach and a primary data collected on 288 farm households in Fimela district in Senegal. The results indicated that 74.8% of the farmers used organic and chemical fertilizers, and 19.8% used afforestation as climate change adaptation strategies against soil salinity threats. The results further revealed that threat and coping appraisals and subjective norms were the main socio-psychological factors that influenced farmers’ intention to adapt to soil salinity threats. Contrary to our expectation, maladaptive coping had no relationship with farmers’ intention to adapt against soil salinity threats in Fimela. This study has highlighted the importance of Protection Motivation Theory as a robust conceptual framework for explaining the socio-psychological adaptive behaviour of smallholder farmers against soil salinity expansion due to climate change.

Patterns of engagement in digital mental health intervention for LGBTQ+ youth: a latent profile analysis

Engagement is a key metric that researchers can use to assess whether participants received the intended dose of a digital health intervention. However, the prevailing approach has predominantly focused on individual paradata metrics, resulting in a fragmented understanding of overall engagement. To address this limitation, our study utilizes person-centered approaches that allow for the simultaneous capture of multiple engagement metrics within imi–a web application specifically designed to support the mental health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other sexual and gender minority youth (LGBTQ+ youth). This person-centered approach enabled us to explore the association between engagement patterns and stress appraisal outcomes within the imi intervention arm. Utilizing latent profile analysis, we classified users into two engagement forms: overall engagement (total number of sessions, pages visited, and external links clicked and their cumulative time spent using imi) and content engagement (number of pages viewed across imi's four core guides: gender, stress, queerness, and stigma). We identified two profiles for each form: a “high engagement” profile and an “average engagement” profile, with the majority of participants assigned to the “average engagement” profile. Our analyses revealed a significant association between overall engagement profiles and stress appraisals, with the “high engagement” profile demonstrating higher challenge appraisals and marginal improvements in threat appraisals compared to the “average engagement” profile. However, no such associations were observed for content engagement profiles and stress appraisal outcomes. The two person-centered approaches used were consistent with prior results utilizing a variable-centered approach, indicating a stronger intervention effect among individuals who exhibit higher engagement in digital health interventions. Although both methods yielded comparable findings, the person-centered approach mitigates concerns related to multi-collinearity and adds additional nuance and context to the study of digital engagement.

General data protection regulation: a study on attitude and emotional empowerment

ABSTRACT Over the last few years, digitalisation has accelerated its pace, fuelling the creation of a massive amount of data. This has resulted in a need to introduce legal mechanisms to protect the privacy and security of data being exchanged between people and organisations. However, little is known about the individuals’ perspective on such mechanisms. Given the gap in the literature, this research investigated the drivers and the implications of individuals’ attitude towards GDPR compliance. To test the research model, structural equational modelling was employed using 540 responses. The result showed that perceived threat severity, self-efficacy and response efficacy determine a positive attitude towards GDPR compliance, which results in emotional empowerment. The findings contribute to the literature on legal privacy-preserving mechanisms, by providing a user’s view on the coping and threat appraisal factors underpinning attitude and demonstrating the implications for driving confidence in control over personal data. The findings also contribute to the literature on protection motivation by demonstrating that attitude towards adaptive behaviour drives emotional empowerment. The study offers suggestions to policymakers on how to enhance public perception of the GDPR. The findings also provide guidelines for organisations on how to inform individuals’ understanding of compliance with the legal framework.

Predictors of Vaccination Intentions and Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy.

The present research aimed at understanding individuals' vaccination intentions and protective behaviours against COVID-19 through two different studies. In Study 1 (N = 213, 73% women; mean age = 24.03) the Protection Motivation Theory model was tested considering the fear of COVID-19 as a possible mediator between threat appraisal (in terms of both health and social life) and intentions to get vaccinated when the vaccination was not yet available. Study 2 (N = 1111, 68.9% women; mean age = 38.33) was conducted when the vaccine became available for the entire population. Through this study, by adopting the 5C model of vaccine hesitancy as a theoretical framework, we aimed to understand how people who got vaccinated and the ones who did not differed, considering fear of vaccination, personality and vaccination hesitancy. In Study 1, social limitations, perceived severity and COVID-19 perceived vulnerability were significantly and positively related to fear of COVID-19. Contrary to what we expected, fear of COVID-19 was not a significant predictor of vaccination intention, which was predicted by both response efficacy and self-efficacy. In Study 2, in line with previous studies, vaccine hesitancy was negatively related to vaccination. More specifically, the social-oriented dimension of collective responsibility was the strongest predictor of effective behaviour. Our findings provide insights into the complexity of vaccine acceptance and emphasise the need for targeted interventions to promote vaccination and mitigate the spread of infectious diseases.

Is it all about the personal resources? The moderating role of resilience on daily stress appraisal and emotion

ABSTRACT Recent reviews of occupational resilience have called for this personal resource to be included as both a predictor and moderator of the stress appraisal-emotion relationship. This research addresses these calls by investigating how employees’ self-reports of daily challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisals relate to their daily work-related positive affect, anger, and anxiety, while assessing both the main and moderating effects of resilience. Data were collected through daily diaries from 318 employees over five consecutive workdays (1,502 daily observations). Results were supportive of the distinct appraisal-emotion relationships, as daily challenge appraisal positively predicted daily work-related positive affect, daily hindrance appraisal positively predicted daily work-related anger, and daily threat appraisal positively predicted daily work-related anxiety. Results of the moderating effect of resilience on these relationships were mixed. Despite resilience positively predicting positive affect and negatively predicting anger and anxiety, resilience only appeared to buffer the daily hindrance-anger relationship. While further research is required to understand which personal resources are the most effective in promoting employee wellbeing, this research is supportive of the influence of both stressor appraisal and resilience in understanding occupational wellbeing, particularly the benefit of challenge appraisal and resilience in promoting emotional wellbeing.

Good performance in difficult times? Threat and challenge as contributors to achievement emotions and academic performance during the COVID-19 outbreak.

The COVID-19 pandemic has emerged as one of the most formidable global crises, leading to the disruptions to education systems worldwide and impacting learning attitudes and psychological well-being of various learner groups, including university students. In this context, students' appraisals of adverse learning situations play a key role. It is not just the learning situation, but rather students' appraisal of it which impacts their emotions, attitudes, and behaviors in academic context. The aim of the present study was to investigate how university students' challenge and threat appraisals were related to emotional learning experiences and learning outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the study focuses on the role of personal and external resources for learning in this context. Altogether, 428 students, who attended a Psychology lecture at one Austrian university, filled in a questionnaire about their challenge and threat appraisals of learning circumstances during the COVID-19 pandemic, achievement emotions they experienced during this time as well as gender, proneness to anxiety, academic self-concept, and learning resources. Additionally, students' performance in the examination was recorded. The structural equation model emphasizes a crucial role of challenge and threat appraisals for students' achievement emotions in learning and exam preparation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Challenge appraisals were the strongest predictor for pleasant emotions and threat appraisals were strongest predictor for unpleasant emotions. Proneness to anxiety was related to threat appraisal as well as to experience of more unpleasant and, surprisingly, to positive emotions in adverse learning situation. Academic self-concept and learning resources were identified as important resources for learning in adverse learning situation. Unpleasant achievement emotions were directly and negatively related to academic performance and may thus be seen as a critical variable and crucial obstacle to academic performance. The present study provides implications for learning and instructions which could be implemented by universities in order to support learning and learning attitudes among university students in adverse learning situations.

"Oh no, they caught it!": Vicarious experience of COVID-19, protection motivation and protective behaviors.

Utilizing the components of the protection motivation theory, this study investigated the role of close others' diagnosis of COVID-19 (as a vicarious experience) in individuals' adherence to protective behavior against COVID-19. Path analysis of online survey data from 3695 participants showed that the presence of a diagnosed close other was positively related to perceived vulnerability, while being negatively related to perceived response efficacy and self-efficacy. In addition, perceived severity and efficacy appraisals were positively associated with protective behavioral tendencies. Although efficacy appraisal mediated the relationship between vicarious experience and protective behavior, threat appraisal did not mediate this relationship. In sum, the results suggest that efficacy appraisal derived from vicarious experiences can be more consequential for protective behaviors than threat appraisal. Implications of these results on future large-scale health crises are discussed along with limitations and future directions.

Threat Appraisal, Emotional Contagion, and Fear of COVID-19: Revision of the Extended Parallel Process Model

Fear of COVID-19 has been understandably widespread, given continual exposure to dire information from pandemic media coverage and interpersonal communications. The present study addresses a limitation of the extended parallel process model in predicting fear of COVID-19 by inclusion of the concept of emotional contagion. The main gap in the literature is filled by the study’s distinctive contribution that broadens and upgrades the extended parallel process model. The model is extended by its integration with the theory of emotional processing. The study is based on a national panel of adults ( N = 206). The methods include path modeling by SmartPLS. In addition, multigroup analyses examine overall model differences between gender classifications. Findings and conclusions can be used to minimize excessive fear, and at the same time to promote confidence in following official public guidance and protective regulations to cope with the pandemic.

A framework for cyber-risk insurance against ransomware: A mixed-method approach

Hackers follow a standard cyber kill chain process and install ransomware payloads using phishing emails on firms belonging to critical industry, resulting in huge losses in revenue, reputation, and customer churn. This study uses a mixed-method explanatory approach to mitigate ransomware attacks. We present the quantitative Ransomware Risk Management Model (R2M2) based on protection motivation theory (PMT). The Ransomware Risk Assessment module based on the threat appraisal component of PMT and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) guidelines can help the chief information security officer (CISO) to assess the risk using predictive analytics techniques. The Ransomware Risk Quantification module uses collective risk modeling to compute the severity of a ransomware attack on an organization. The Ransomware Risk Mitigation module helps the CISO to minimize the probability and impact of a ransomware attack on their organization by (i) investing in perimeter security technologies and training to ensure prepare, deter, detect, restrain, recover, and review mitigation strategies, (ii) adopting the National Institue of Standards and Technology (NIST) Cybersecurity Framework to ensure business resilience, and (iii) mitigating the residual risk by investing in cyber-risk insurance. We validated the proposed method using a qualitative study by interviewing participants form firms affected by ransomware, managed security service providers, security consultants, and cyber-risk insurers.