Thermoluminescence Dosimetry System Research Articles

Energy and angular dependence of the personal dosemeter in use at ITN-DPRSN

In this paper the characterization of the dosimetry system and of the personal dosemeter in terms of the stability of the reader calibration factors and of the linearity of the response for the 137Cs reference radiation is presented. The energy and angular dependence of the whole body dosemeter are also shown. The energy dependence was determined performing irradiations with the X-ray narrow series beams N30, N40, N60, N80, N100, N120 and with the gamma reference radiations of 137Cs and 60Co [ISO 4037-1, 1996. X and Gamma Reference Radiation for Calibrating Dosemeters and Doserate Meters and for Determining Their Response as a Function of Photon Energy—Part 1: Radiation Characteristics and Production Methods. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva] in terms of Hp(10) incident on the ISO water slab phantom. The angular dependence of the dosemeter was determined for the angles 0°, ± 20 ∘ , ± 40 ∘ and ± 60 ∘ with normal using the above mentioned radiation fields. All irradiations were performed at the Laboratório de Metrologia das Radiações lonizantes of ITN-DPRSN. The experiments presented in this paper show the thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) system is stable and presents a linear behaviour over and extended dose range. The measurements allowed the determination of the energy dependence at normal incidence and of the angular dependence of the dosemeter currently in use. Further studies are being carried out in order to implement correction factors for supralinearity and low energy measurements.

2-D dosimetry of a proton radiotherapy beam using large-area LiF:Mg,Cu,P TL detectors

A two-dimensional (2-D) thermoluminescence (TL) dosimetry system, consisting of LiF:Mg,Cu,P (MCP-N)-based TL foils and a TLD reader equipped with a CCD camera, was developed at the Institute of Nuclear Physics (IFJ PAN) in Krakow, Poland. We applied this system to verify 2-D dose distributions in the 62 MeV proton ocular radiotherapy beam at INFN, Catania. TL foils placed inside a specially designed PMMA eye phantom were irradiated and read out to determine 40 × 40 mm 2 planar ( X – Y and X – Z ) dose distributions for doses up to 16 Gy. Dose and energy response for LiF:Mg,Cu,P were calculated using the one-hit detector microdosimetric model and applied to correct the detector response. TLD-measured and MCNPX-calculated distal ranges agreed to within 0.3 mm, while TLD-measured transverse beam cross-sections were about 0.8 mm wider than those calculated using the MCNPX Monte Carlo code.

On the clinical applicability of large-area 2-D TL dosimetry for verifying small photon radiotherapy beams

A two-dimensional (2-D) thermoluminescence (TL) dosimetry system consisting of LiF:Mg,Cu,P (MCP-N)-ETFE (Teflon)-based TL foils and a large-area TLD reader equipped with a CCD camera, has been developed at the Institute of Nuclear Physics (IFJ PAN). At our radiotherapy department we tested the applicability of this system to verify 2-D dose distributions in a multileaf collimator-shaped 6 MV radiotherapy beam of size about 3 × 3 cm 2 . Water-immersible TL foils, of size 50 × 50 mm 2 , c. 0.2 mm thickness and density 1.95 g / cm 3 were placed in a water phantom and exposed at different depths, across or along the beam axis, read out using a 2-D TL reader equipped with a CCD camera and processed by reader software, yielding respective beam dose profiles in digital matrix form. We were also able to further process these matrices with the software of the therapy planning system (TPS) which we use routinely for clinical purposes. Satisfactory agreement found between dose distributions measured as percent depth dose or transverse beam profiles at different depths and respective distributions calculated by the TPS, confirms that the 2-D TL dosimetry is a promising technique for quality assurance of radiotherapy beams where steep dose gradients may occur over small field areas.

Characterisation of radiophotoluminescent dosimeters for environmental monitoring

Solid state dosimetry systems, including the early radiophotoluminescent (RPL) glass dosimeters, were investigated for application in environmental monitoring. RPL systems are under permanent development. The following dosimetric characteristics of the recently developed SC-1 flat RPL glass dosimeters with FGD-202 reader for environmental dosimetry were investigated: uniformity/batch homogeneity, reproducibility, linearity, detection threshold, energy dependence in air, on phantom and in water as well as the light sensitivity. All characteristics investigated fulfil the requirements of the IEC 61066:2006 Standard for personal and environmental dosimetry [IEC, International Electrotechnical Commission, 2006. Thermoluminescence dosimetry systems for personal and environmental monitoring. CEI/IEC International Standard 61066:2006]. It was found, that while the dosimeter is not sensitive for light because of automatic manipulation, the glass element itself could be used for 254 nm UV irradiation measurement. The UV light sensitivity differs for unirradiated and irradiated glass element. The authors recommend to extend the IEC Standard for personal and environmental monitoring also for RPL (and other) passive solid state dosimeters.

Type testing of a new TLD for the UK Health Protection Agency

The UK Health Protection Agency is currently commissioning a new personal dosimetry system based on the use of Harshaw two-element thermoluminescent dosemeter cards using LiF:Mg,Cu,P. Results of extensive type testing carried out with reference to IEC 61066, "Thermoluminescence Dosimetry Systems for Personal and Environmental Monitoring", have been presented.

Multicriteria Relocation Analysis of an Off-site Radioactive Monitoring Network for a Nuclear Power Plant

Due to increasing environmental consciousness in most countries, every utility that owns a commercial nuclear power plant has been required to have both an on-site and off-site emergency response plan since the 1980s. A radiation monitoring network, viewed as part of the emergency response plan, can provide information regarding the radiation dosage emitted from a nuclear power plant in a regular operational period and/or abnormal measurements in an emergency event. Such monitoring information might help field operators and decision-makers to provide accurate responses or make decisions to protect the public health and safety. This study aims to conduct an integrated simulation and optimization analysis looking for the relocation strategy of a long-term regular off-site monitoring network at a nuclear power plant. The planning goal is to downsize the current monitoring network but maintain its monitoring capacity as much as possible. The monitoring sensors considered in this study include the thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) and air sampling system (AP) simultaneously. It is designed for detecting the radionuclide accumulative concentration, the frequency of violation, and the possible population affected by a long-term impact in the surrounding area regularly while it can also be used in an accidental release event. With the aid of the calibrated Industrial Source Complex-Plume Rise Model Enhancements (ISC-PRIME) simulation model to track down the possible radionuclide diffusion, dispersion, transport, and transformation process in the atmospheric environment, a multiobjective evaluation process can be applied to achieve the screening of monitoring stations for the nuclear power plant located at Hengchun Peninsula, South Taiwan. To account for multiple objectives, this study calculated preference weights to linearly combine objective functions leading to decision-making with exposure assessment in an optimization context. Final suggestions should be useful for narrowing the set of scenarios that decision-makers need to consider in this relocation process.

Comparison on characteristics of radiophotoluminescent glass dosemeters and thermoluminescent dosemeters

The radiophotoluminescent glass dosemeter (RPLGD) system is applicable for measurement of radiation dose of X rays and gamma rays by using radiophotoluminescent glass (silver-activated phosphate glass). When the radiophotoluminescent glass is exposed to ionizing radiation, stable luminescent centres are created. During pulsed ultraviolet laser excitation (337.1 nm) in the reader, the centres emit a radiation induced orange fluorescent light (600-700 nm). This phenomenon is called radiophotoluminescence. This study compared the RPLGD system with lithium fluoride (LiF) thermoluminescence dosimetry system and the results of the study revealed that the RPLGD had not only good basic characteristics for reproducibility of readout value, dose linearity, energy dependence and fading, but also infinite repeatable measurements and could be one of the most important radiation dose measurement instruments.

New 2-D dosimetric technique for radiotherapy based on planar thermoluminescent detectors

At the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFJ) in Kraków, a two-dimensional (2-D) thermoluminescence (TL) dosimetry system was developed within the MAESTRO (Methods and Advanced Equipment for Simulation and Treatment in Radio-Oncology) 6 Framework Programme and tested by evaluating 2-D dose distributions around radioactive sources. A thermoluminescent detector (TLD) foil was developed, of thickness 0.3 mm and diameter 60 mm, containing a mixture of highly sensitive LiF:Mg,Cu,P powder and Ethylene TetraFluoroEthylene (ETFE) polymer. Foil detectors were irradiated with (226)Ra brachytherapy sources and a (90)Sr/(90)Y source. 2-D dose distributions were evaluated using a prototype planar (diameter 60 mm) reader, equipped with a 12 bit Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) PCO AG camera, with a resolution of 640 x 480 pixels. The new detectors, showing a spatial resolution better than 0.5 mm and a measurable dose range typical for radiotherapy, can find many applications in clinical dosimetry. Another technology applicable to clinical dosimetry, also developed at IFJ, is the Si microstrip detector of size 95 x 95 mm(2), which may be used to evaluate the dose distribution with a spatial resolution of 120 microm along one direction, in real-time mode. The microstrip and TLD technology will be further improved, especially to develop detectors of larger area, and to make them applicable to some advanced radiotherapy modalities, such as intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) or proton radiotherapy.

Calibration of a TLD-100 powder dosimetric system to verify the absorbed dose to water imparted by 137Cs sources in low dose rate brachytherapy at the oncology unit in the Hospital General de Mexico

A thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) system was characterised at SSDL-ININ to verify the air-kerma strength (S(K)) and dose-to-water (D(W)) values for (137)Cs sources used in low dose rate (LDR) brachytherapy treatments at the Hospital General de Mexico (HGM). It consists of a Harshaw 3500 reader and a set of TLD-100 powder capsules. The samples of TLD-100 powder were calibrated in terms of D(W) vs. nC or nC mg(-1), and their dose response curves were corrected for supralinearity. The D(W) was calculated using the AAPM TG-43 formalism using S(K) for a CDCSM4 (137)Cs reference source. The S(K) value was obtained by using a NE 2611 chamber, and with two well chambers. The angular anisotropy factor was measured with the NE 2611 chamber for this source. The HGM irradiated TLD-100 powder capsules to a reference dose D(W) of 2 Gy with their (137)Cs sources. The percent deviations between the imparted and reference doses were 1.2% < or = Delta < or = 6.5%, which are consistent with the combined uncertainties: 5.6% < or = u(c) < or = 9.8% for D(W).

Rastreabilidade das referências metrológicas em dose absorvida na água do Programa de Qualidade em Dosimetria

OBJETIVO: Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar a estrutura solidamente estabelecida de rastreabilidade dos padrões ionométricos e do sistema de medidas com dosímetros termoluminescentes, como parte da confiabilidade do Programa de Qualidade em Dosimetria (PQD), que visa a garantir o mais elevado nível de exatidão às suas medidas. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: A exemplo de outros programas, usaram-se dosímetros termoluminescentes (DTL 937) na forma de pó, colocados em uma cápsula de plástico, em "kits" específicos para cada aplicação, os quais foram enviados, por via postal, aos centros participantes. RESULTADOS: Os resultados da intercomparação realizada entre o Laboratório de Ciências Radiológicas da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro e o EQUAL-ESTRO para o feixe de raios gama de 60Co, expressos para (1sigma), e os resultados das medidas de dose absorvida, obtidos com as câmaras dp Programa EQUAL e as câmaras do PQD, apresentaram discordância menor que 0,5%. CONCLUSÃO: Dos resultados conclui-se que o PQD alcançou o nível desejado de confiabilidade, necessário à implementação do Programa.

Occupational exposure to ionising radiation with thermoluminescence dosimetry system in Turkey, in 2003

The individual annual dose information on classified workers who are occupationally exposed to extended radiation sources by using thermoluminescence dosimetry system, in Turkey, was assessed and analysed by the Ankara Nuclear Research and Training Centre (ANAEM) dosimetry service at the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) for the year 2003. A total of 3721 persons were monitored with TLD and the data presented in this report were obtained by using TLD technology in 2003. The annual mean effective doses received from external radiation in different fields of activities and the distribution of the annual effective dose by dose intervals are presented. The collective annual dose by field of activity is estimated and the contribution to the total annual collective dose is determined.

A new paradigm in personal dosimetry using LiF:Mg,Cu,P.

The United States Navy has been monitoring personnel for occupational exposure to ionising radiation since 1947. Film was exclusively used until 1973 when thermoluminescence dosemeters were introduced and used to the present time. In 1994, a joint research project between the Naval Dosimetry Center, Georgetown University, and Saint Gobain Crystals and Detectors (formerly Bicron RMP formerly Harshaw TLD) began to develop a state of the art thermoluminescent dosimetry system. The study was conducted from a large-scale dosimetry processor point of view with emphasis on a systems approach. Significant improvements were achieved by replacing the LiF:Mg,Ti with LiF:Mg,Cu,P TL elements due to the significant sensitivity increase, linearity, and negligible hiding. Dosemeter filters were optimised for gamma and X ray energy discrimination using Monte Carlo modelling (MCNP) resulting in significant improvement in accuracy and precision. Further improvements were achieved through the use of neural-network based dose calculation algorithms. Both back propagation and functional link methods were implemented and the data compared with essentially the same results. Several operational aspects of the system are discussed, including (1) background subtraction using control dosemeters, (2) selection criteria for control dosemeters, (3) optimisation of the TLD readers, (4) calibration methodology, and (5) the optimisation of the heating profile.

Recent Developments of Passive and Active Detectors used in the Monitoring of External Environmental Radiation

The aim of this work is to review some of the latest improvements concerning the different techniques employed for the measurement of external environmental radiation. Nowadays these procedures are an important part of the routine environmental monitoring programmes. Some examples are the radiological surveillance around nuclear and radiation facilities, the operation of early warning networks and the measurement of natural radiation. The progress in passive thermoluminescence dosimetry systems is mainly related to the implementation of tissue equivalent high sensitivity materials such as LiF:Mg,Cu,P. However, the impact of replacing a previous TL system normally based on LiF:Mg,Ti needs to be considered. As an alternative to TLDs, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) detectors based on Al 2 O 3 :C are also becoming important in environmental monitoring. Regarding classical active instruments, the improvements are more focused on the electronics, communications and software advances than on the detectors themselves. As a result, a generation of weatherproof, autonomous and reliable instruments has appeared. The use of portable gamma spectrometry systems and electronic pocket dosemeters provides new approaches to continuous dose rate measurements.

Thermoluminescence dosimetry applied to in vivo dose measurements for total body irradiation techniques

Background and purpose: In total body irradiation (TBI) treatments in vivo dosimetry is recommended because it makes it possible to ensure the accuracy and quality control of dose delivery. The aim of this work is to set up an in vivo thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) system to measure the dose distribution during the TBI technique used prior to bone marrow transplant. Some technical problems due to the presence of lung shielding blocks are discussed. Materials and methods: Irradiations were performed in the Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau by means of a Varian Clinac-1800 linear accelerator with 18 MV X-ray beams. Different TLD calibration experiments were set up to optimize in vivo dose assessment and to analyze the influence on dose measurement of shielding blocks. An algorithm to estimate midplane doses from entrance and exit doses is proposed and the estimated dose in critical organs is compared to internal dose measurements performed in an Alderson anthropomorphic phantom. Results: The predictions of the dose algorithm, even in heterogeneous zones of the body such as the lungs, are in good agreement with the experimental results obtained with and without shielding blocks. The differences between measured and predicted values are in all cases lower than 2%. Conclusions: The TLD system described in this work has been proven to be appropriate for in vivo dosimetry in TBI irradiations. The described calibration experiments point out the difficulty of calibrating an in vivo dosimetry system when lung shielding blocks are used.

Neutron response of a laser-heated thermoluminescence dosimetry system

A laser-heated thermoluminescence dosimetry (LHTLD) system was tested for albedo response to mono-energetic neutrons ranging in energy from 200 keV to 2.8 MeV. For neutron response measurements, pairs of magnesium borate (Mg10/11B4O7:Tm) and lithium fluoride (6/7LiF:Mg,Ti) phosphor chips were used. In general, the LHTLD system based on Mg10/11B4O7:Tm shows response similar to the LiF system, that is a decreasing response ratio (R=dose read/dose applied) with increasing neutron energy approaching a response of 0.07 for higher energies. In addition, the neutron responses consistently indicates a higher response for the LiF system than the LHTLD system by about 22%, possibly due in part to the internal shielding of non-albedo thermal neutrons in the LHTLD badge.

ESR and TL dosimetry systems: comparative measurements for human phantom

Mixtures of small fragments on tooth enamel as well as thermoluminescence (TL) dosimeters were placed into the tissue-equivalent phantom of the human head with skeleton (approximately at the level of the jaws) and irradiated using 137Cs low dose-rate gamma therapeutic sources (‘SELEKTRON’ LDR 137Cs). Phantom, samples of teeth and TL detectors were irradiated behind water tank to produce scattered irradiation. The same irradiation with the same geometry was performed in air too. For gamma-spectrometry 137Cs sources with very low activity were used but with the same geometry as therapeutic sources. The absorbed dose in enamel was estimated with the help of ESR spectrometer ‘ESP-300 E’ (Brucker). The samples of tooth enamel were partially used for preliminary dose evaluation by ESR signal before starting of experiment. TL dosimetry was performed by TL reader model 8800 (HARSHAW) using TL dosimeters calibrated with 137Cs. The paper presents data obtained in comparative aspects.

New Aspects of Environmental Monitoring Using Flat Phosphate Glass and Thermoluminescence Dosemeters

At the Karlsruhe Monitoring Service photoluminescence dosimetry (PLD) systems have been used in environmental monitoring since the middle of the 1960s. Nowadays flat glass dosemeters with a pattern approval by the Physikalisch Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) and full automatic readout using pulsed UV laser excitation and pre-dose suppression have replaced the old PLD system. The special advantages of glass dosemeters for this application are above all the long-term stability of field and calibration dosemeters and the insensitivity to ambient temperature and humidity. Based on twenty years experience and the recent progress in routine monitoring by introducing new dosimetry systems, the paper discusses actual results of flat glass PLD systems and LiF thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) systems, which have been simultaneously used for environmental monitoring. The PLD system with a fading of about 1% is stable without any temperature treatment. Due to the instability of electron traps in TLD-700 and the temperature dependent fading, TLD-700 underestimates the natural radiation background by 5 to 10% depending on seasonal effects, which is demonstrated in a ten years experiment in the environment. The response to cosmic rays found to be 0.91 for PLD and 0.82 for TLD-700, indicates a more pronounced under-response of TLD. Without applying individual calibration factors for each PL dosemeter, the coefficient of variation for the readout at 0.1 mSv is about 10%. Calibration procedures and correction factors are discussed which may improve the consistency of environmental dose results.

Performance of a Laser Heated TLD System for Personnel Radiation Dosimetry

Prototypes of a laser heated thermoluminescence dosimetry system consisting of a multi-element badge capable of measuring deep and shallow photon dose as well as neutron dose were evaluated for personnel dosimetry. The brief details of the automated reader and badge design are presented. The system can discriminate between low and high energy photons and uses an algorithm to apply appropriate corrections stored in the system. Dosimetric performance of the system for personnel level doses are discussed here. Data for the batch response of badges is presented.

Type Testing of the Siemens Plessey Electronic Personal Dosimeter

This paper presents the results of a laboratory assessment of the performance of a new type of personal dosimeter, the Electronic Personal Dosemeter made by Siemens Plessey Controls Limited. Twenty pre-production dosimeters and a reader were purchased by Ontario Hydro for the assessment. Tests were performed on radiological performance, including reproducibility, accuracy, linearity, detection threshold, energy response, angular response, neutron response, and response time. There were also tests on the effects of a variety of environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, pulsed magnetic and electric fields, low- and high-frequency electromagnetic fields, light exposure, drop impact, vibration, and splashing. Other characteristics that were tested were alarm volume, clip force, and battery life. The test results were compared with the relevant requirements of three standards: an Ontario Hydro standard for personal alarming dosimeters, an International Electrotechnical Commission draft standard for direct reading personal dose monitors, and an International Electrotechnical Commission standard for thermoluminescence dosimetry systems for personal monitoring. In general, the performance of the Electronic Personal Dosemeter was found to be quite acceptable: it met most of the relevant requirements of the three standards. However, the following deficiencies were found: slow response time; sensitivity to high-frequency electromagnetic fields; poor resistance to dropping; and an alarm that was not loud enough. In addition, the response of the electronic personal dosimeter to low-energy beta rays may be too low for some applications. Problems were experienced with the reliability of operation of the pre-production dosimeters used in these tests.

Characterization of a two-dimensional, thermoluminescent, dose-mapping system: Uniformity, reproducibility, and calibrations

Initial testing of a new, commercially available, thermoluminescent dosimetry system is reported. The radiation detectors consist of two-dimensional arrays of 104 CaF2:Mn dosimeters, deposited on flexible polyimide sheets. The spatial resolution is 3 mm, and the combined thickness of the dosimeters and the substrate is 185 μm. Exposed sheets are processed by laser heating. This system is compatible with intense, pulsed Bremsstrahlung fields and electronics hardness testing. A two-step calibration procedure is described. In spatial uniformity tests at 66 Gy the detectors exhibited random fluctuations of 1%–3% superposed on broad spatial drifts of ∼±5%. Reproducibility for strips of 288 elements, cut from sheets and given absorbed doses of 100 Gy, was ∼2%. For absorbed doses in the 10 Gy–1.5 kGy range, response vs exposure curves show reasonable features of linearity, supralinearity, and saturation for CaF2:Mn phosphor. Small systematic effects (&amp;lt;7%) can be observed for sheets and strips stacked during exposure; these effects are explained by radiation transport calculations and impact the dosimetric technique.