Thermodynamic Components Research Articles

Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity in Precipitation over China and Its Connections with Large-Scale Climate Oscillations—A Moisture Budget Perspective

Abstract Climate change can lead to variations in the probability distribution of precipitation. In this study, quantile regression (QR) is undertaken to identify the quantile trends in precipitation over China and to examine the quantile effects of various climate oscillations on precipitation. The results show that the quantile trends show apparent seasonal variations, with a greater number of stations showing trends in winter (especially at quantile levels ≥ 0.5), and larger average magnitudes of trends at nearly all quantile levels in summer. The effects of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) exhibit evident variations with respect to the quantile level. Spatial clusters are subsequently identified based on the quantile trends, and the individual and combined effects from the teleconnection patterns are further investigated from the perspective of moisture budget. Seven spatial clusters with distinct seasonal quantile trends can be identified; three of them are located in southeastern China and are characterized by increasing trends in summer and winter precipitation. Summer precipitation over this region is positively influenced by ENSO and negatively influenced by NAO, with the former affecting both the dynamic and thermodynamic components of vertically integrated moisture divergence and the latter affecting only the dynamic component. The interaction effect of ENSO and NAO on summer precipitation anomalies in months that are extremely wetter than normal is statistically significant. In comparison, winter precipitation in this region is under the positive influence of ENSO and NAO and the negative influence of PDO; the effect of ENSO on moisture convergence can be mainly attributed to its dynamic component.

Water as a Link between Membrane and Colloidal Theories for Cells.

This review is an attempt to incorporate water as a structural and thermodynamic component of biomembranes. With this purpose, the consideration of the membrane interphase as a bidimensional hydrated polar head group solution, coupled to the hydrocarbon region allows for the reconciliation of two theories on cells in dispute today: one considering the membrane as an essential part in terms of compartmentalization, and another in which lipid membranes are not necessary and cells can be treated as a colloidal system. The criterium followed is to describe the membrane state as an open, non-autonomous and responsive system using the approach of Thermodynamic of Irreversible Processes. The concept of an open/non-autonomous membrane system allows for the visualization of the interrelationship between metabolic events and membrane polymorphic changes. Therefore, the Association Induction Hypothesis (AIH) and lipid properties interplay should consider hydration in terms of free energy modulated by water activity and surface (lateral) pressure. Water in restricted regions at the lipid interphase has thermodynamic properties that explain the role of H-bonding networks in the propagation of events between membrane and cytoplasm that appears to be relevant in the context of crowded systems.

Revisiting the physical mechanisms of East Asian summer monsoon precipitation changes during the mid-Holocene: a data–model comparison

The mid-Holocene (MH; 6 ka) is one of the benchmark periods for the Paleoclimate Modeling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) and provides a unique opportunity to study monsoon dynamics and orbital forcing (i.e., mostly precession) that differ significantly from the present day. We conducted a data–model comparison along with a dynamic analysis to investigate monsoonal (i.e., East Asian summer monsoon; EASM) precipitation changes over East Asia during the MH. We used the three phases of the PMIP simulations for the MH, and quantitatively compare model results with pollen-based climate records. The data–model comparison shows an overall increase in the summer monsoon precipitation, except a local decrease during the MH. Decomposition of the moisture budget into thermodynamic and dynamic components allows us to assess their relative role in controlling EASM precipitation during the MH, and to investigate the precipitation changes obtained from pollen records in terms of physical processes. We show that the dynamic effect, rather than the thermodynamic effect, is the dominant control in increased EASM precipitation during the MH in both the proxy records and models. The dynamic increase in precipitation results mainly from the enhancement of horizontal monsoonal moisture transport that is caused by intensified stationary eddy horizontal circulation over East Asia. In addition, a cloud-related cooling effect reduced the thermodynamic contribution to the increase in EASM precipitation during the MH.

Gas path deterioration assessment for turbofan engines based on stochastic dynamics responses in the thermodynamic cycle

Aiming at the adverse effects of strong nonlinearity and high uncertainty existing in the gas path performance deterioration assessment of turbofan engines, in contrast to previously reported techniques on dealing with nonlinearity and uncertainty that this work proposes a new method for assessing the gas path performance based on the stochastic dynamics responses, which fully utilizes the synergy of nonlinearity and uncertainty to accurately identify health status. The nonlinear expressions of turbofan engines are derived from thermodynamic equations and component characteristics. The gas path deterioration assessment method is further established based on the stochastic dynamics, and the thrust and specific fuel consumption integrating the nonlinearity and uncertainty are correspondingly designed to quantify the performance deterioration degree. The influences of nonlinearity and uncertainty on the assessment results are then discussed, which proves the necessity of considering nonlinearity and uncertainty in the performance assessment. Finally, the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed method are verified by comparing with the traditional method under two performance deterioration cases. The results indicate that the proposed method enhances early weak deterioration features through the optimal matching among fuel flow rate, nonlinearity and uncertainty to accurately assess the gas path performance. The statistical accuracy of the proposed method is 94%, which describes performance evolution trends and provides a novel and effective way to synthetically deal with the nonlinearity and uncertainty in the performance assessment of turbofan engines.

Thermodynamic analysis of ideal thermocompressor based on Euler view

The thermocompressor is the driving source and the core heat-work conversion part of Vuilleumier (VM) refrigerator, which cause pressure fluctuation of the gas by converting the thermal energy at a constant volume. The thermocompressor is consists of cylinder, heater, generator, cooler, displacer, driving mechanism, load, hot cavity and cold cavity. Therefore, the ideal thermocompressor was introduced for thermal analysis to simplify the thermodynamic process and components. In order to better understand the principle of heat-work conversion in the ideal thermocompressor, firstly, the thermodynamic concept of the variable mass system that can be used in the ideal thermocompressor was introduced. Secondly, the thermodynamic process of the ideal thermocompressor under the Euler view was analyzed. Thirdly, the internal operation characteristics of the thermocompressor without load and driving displacer type refrigerator were discussed. At last, the distributions of enthalpy flow, entropy flow and exergy flow in all parts of the ideal thermocompressor were carried out. The results show that the thermocompressor does not output the net entropy flow to the load in one cycle and the flow exergy output by thermocompressor is equal in quantity to the acoustic power output by thermocompressor.

Indian Summer Monsoon variability 140–70 thousand years ago based on multi-proxy records from the Bay of Bengal

Understanding the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) behaviour during the late Pleistocene has been largely based on the wind-driven upwelling records from the Arabian Sea. However, it remains unclear the extent to which these records can also be used to infer a concomitant signal of monsoon rainfall, or how the two ISM components, rainfall and wind, are linked on millennial timescales. In order to isolate a primary signal of ISM rainfall, we exploit two deep sea sediment cores from the northern Bay of Bengal (Site U1446) and Andaman Sea (Site U1448), both situated proximal to the South Asian continent, and thus ideally situated for capturing ISM rainfall and fluvial runoff. By comparing our multi-proxy ISM rainfall and runoff records with published ISM wind-driven records from the Arabian Sea, we observe pronounced decoupling of the rainfall and wind components of the ISM across Marine Isotope Stage 5/6 (∼140–70 thousand years ago). We reveal that the relative dominance of barometric dynamics (wind) and the thermodynamic (rainfall) components of the monsoon shifts with changes in background climate state. This finding constitutes an important consideration for the interpretation of past monsoon reconstructions. By comparing our new ISM rainfall records with high latitude climate records, we show that moisture export from low-latitudes, via the monsoon, could have preconditioned the high latitudes for ice sheet growth during glacial inceptions.

Future change in extreme precipitation in East Asian spring and Mei-yu seasons in two high-resolution AGCMs

Precipitation in the spring and Mei-yu seasons, the main planting and growing period in East Asia, is crucial to water resource management. Changes in spring and Mei-yu extreme precipitation under global warming are evaluated based on two sets of high-resolution simulations with various warming pattern of sea surface temperature (SST'spa). In the spring season, extreme precipitation exhibits larger enhancements over the northern flank of the present-day prevailing rainy region and a tendency of increased occurrence and enhanced intensity in the probability distribution. These changes imply a northward extension of future spring rainband. Although the mean precipitation shows minor change, enhanced precipitation intensity, less total rainfall occurrence, and prolonged consecutive dry days suggest a more challenging water resource management in the warmer climate. The projected enhancement in precipitation intensity is robust compared with the internal variability related to initial conditions (σˆint) and the uncertainty caused by SST'spa (σˆΔSST). In the Mei-yu season, extreme precipitation strengthens and becomes more frequent over the present-day prevailing rainband region. The thermodynamic component of moisture flux predominantly contributes to the changes in the spring season. In the Mei-yu season, both the thermodynamic and dynamic components of moisture flux enhance the moisture transport and intensify the extreme precipitation from southern China to northeast Asia. Compared with spring season, projecting future Mei-yu precipitation is more challenging because of its higher uncertainty associated with 1) the σˆint and σˆΔSST embedded in the projections and 2) the model characteristics of present-day climatology that determines the spatial distribution of precipitation enhancement.

A Study of AR-, TS-, and MCS-Associated Precipitation and Extreme Precipitation in Present and Warmer Climates

Abstract Atmospheric rivers (ARs), tropical storms (TSs), and mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important weather phenomena that often threaten society through heavy precipitation and strong winds. Despite their potentially vital role in global and regional hydrological cycles, their contributions to long-term mean and extreme precipitation have not been systematically explored at the global scale. Using observational and reanalysis data, and NOAA’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory’s new high-resolution global climate model, we quantify that despite their occasional (13%) occurrence globally, AR, TS, and MCS days together account for ∼55% of global mean precipitation and ∼75% of extreme precipitation with daily rates exceeding its local 99th percentile. The model reproduces well the observed percentage of mean and extreme precipitation associated with AR, TS, and MCS days. In an idealized global warming simulation with a homogeneous SST increase of 4 K, the modeled changes in global mean and regional distribution of precipitation correspond well with changes in AR/TS/MCS precipitation. Globally, the frequency of AR days increases and migrates toward higher latitudes while the frequency of TS days increases over the central Pacific and part of the south Indian Ocean with a decrease elsewhere. The frequency of MCS days tends to increase over parts of the equatorial western and eastern Pacific warm pools and high latitudes and decreases over most part of the tropics and subtropics. The AR/TS/MCS mean precipitation intensity increases by ∼5% K−1 due primarily to precipitation increases in the top 25% of AR/TS/MCS days with the heaviest precipitation, which are dominated by the thermodynamic component with the dynamic and microphysical components playing a secondary role.

Mechanisms responsible for interdecadal variation of the thermodynamic component of East Asian summer monsoon moisture transport

AbstractIn this study, the East Asian summer (June–July–August) monsoon (EASM) atmospheric moisture transport variability under global warming are examined using ERA‐Interim reanalysis data from 1979 to 2019. The total EASM atmospheric moisture transport is decomposed into the thermodynamic (δTH) and dynamic (δMCD) components, which are related to specific humidity and wind velocity, respectively. Based on empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis, both the second and the fourth modes of δTH are linked to δMCD, indicating that δMCD can impact the moisture distribution and consequently influence δTH indirectly. Both the first (δTH_EOF1) and the third (δTH_EOF3) modes of δTH show considerable interdecadal changes. It is noted that their principal components exhibit significant increasing trends in recent decades. The response of EASM moisture transport to global warming is probably reflected in these two modes. δTH_EOF1 is associated with negative phases of the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO)/Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). This causes the western North Pacific subtropical high (WNPSH) to extend westward and the strengthening of Pacific trade winds. As a result, positive precipitable water anomalies dominate East Asia and δTH_EOF1 is characterized by anomalous southwesterly moisture transport along the East China Sea to southern Japan. δTH_EOF3 corresponds to anomalous moisture transport over the Indochina Peninsula and Japan. The precipitable water associated with δTH_EOF3 in general represents a meridional dipole. Anomalous southward wind induced by the eastward extension of the WNPSH is the main reason for positive (negative) precipitable water anomalies in southern (northern) East Asian. The anomalous circulation associated with the anomalous east–west sea surface temperature gradient over the Indian Ocean affects atmospheric moisture in southern East Asian and can dramatically impact δTH_EOF3.

Thermal hysteresis in microtubule assembly/disassembly dynamics: The aging-induced degradation of tubulin dimers

The assembly/disassembly of biological macromolecules plays an important role in their biological functionalities. Although the dynamics of tubulin polymers and their super-assembly into microtubule structures is critical for many cellular processes, details of their cyclical polymerization/depolymerization are not fully understood. Here, we use a specially designed light scattering technique to continuously examine the effects of temperature cycling on the process of microtubule assembly/disassembly. We observe a thermal hysteresis loop during tubulin assembly/disassembly, consistently with earlier reports on the coexistence of tubulin and microtubules as a phase transition. In a cyclical process, the structural hysteresis has a kinetic component that depends on the rate of temperature change but also an intrinsic thermodynamic component that depends on the protein topology, possibly related to irreversible processes. Analyzing the evolution of such thermal hysteresis loops over successive cycles, we found that the assembly/disassembly ceases after some time, which is indicative of protein aging leading to its inability to self-assemble after a finite number of temperature cycles. The emergence of assembly-incompetent tubulin could have major consequences for human pathologies related to microtubules, including aging, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.

Future precipitation changes in three key sub-regions of East Asia: the roles of thermodynamics and dynamics

Previous studies have projected an increase in future summer precipitation across East Asia (EA). This study investigates the relative contributions of thermodynamic and dynamic components to future precipitation changes in three key sub-regions of EA where the maximum centers of the historical precipitation are located (the tropical region, East China, and the Japan and Korea sector), and analyzes the causes of the changes in thermodynamic and dynamic components. Outputs from 30 climate models of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) are used. From these, the five best-performing models for historical summer precipitation climatology for EA are selected. The future summer precipitations in the three sub-regions over the near- to mid-term (2020–2069) and the long-term (2070–2095) are then examined using the multi-model ensemble mean of the five models selected (MMM05). The projections were driven by four combined scenarios of the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) and forcing levels of the Representative Concentration Pathways (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5). The results show that long-term precipitations under SSP5-8.5 are greater than those under the other scenarios across all sub-regions. After the 2070s under SSP5-8.5, a marked precipitation intensification is identified in all three sub-regions, but with different rates of increase. The projected precipitation increase is primarily attributed to the thermodynamic component, while the dynamic component related to circulation changes is relatively weak. Further analysis indicates that the pattern of the thermodynamic component in the three sub-regions is dominated by the climatological upward motion, mediated by an increase in moisture.

Quantifying the role of ocean coupling in Arctic amplification and sea-ice loss over the 21st century

The enhanced warming of the Arctic, relative to other parts of the Earth, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification, is one of the most striking features of climate change, and has important climatic impacts for the entire Northern Hemisphere. Several mechanisms are believed to be responsible for Arctic amplification; however, a quantitative understanding of their relative importance is still missing. Here, using ensembles of model integrations, we quantify the contribution of ocean coupling, both its thermodynamic and dynamic components, to Arctic amplification over the 20th and 21st centuries. We show that ocean coupling accounts for ~80% of the amplification by 2100. In particular, we show that thermodynamic coupling is responsible for future amplification and sea-ice loss as it overcomes the effect of dynamic coupling which reduces the amplification and sea-ice loss by ~35%. Our results demonstrate the utility of targeted numerical experiments to quantify the role of specific mechanisms in Arctic amplification, for better constraining climate projections.

Analysis of two temperature thermoelastic diffusion plate with variable thermal conductivity and diffusivity

ABSTRACT The current study explores the transient response of a thermoelastic plate in the light of the two-temperature generalized thermoelastic diffusion model involving variable thermal conductivity and diffusivity. The boundary of the plate is designed as mechanical, thermal, and concentration loadings on one side and rigidly fixed, insulated and impermeable on the other side. The thermal conductivity and diffusivity are assumed to be the linear function of thermodynamic temperature and concentration, respectively. Hence, governing equations are non-linear and transformed into linear form by applying Kirchhoff's transform. Transformed governing equations are solved by using the Laplace–Fourier transform technique. In the transform region, the closed form of expressions for conductive and thermodynamic temperature, displacement and stress components, mass concentration, and chemical potential are obtained. Numerical results are obtained by mathematical inversion technique for various quantities obtained analytically in closed form in the transform domain and depicted graphically to illustrate the impacts of variable thermal conductivity, variable diffusivity, and two temperature.

Skilful seasonal predictions of global monsoon summer precipitation with DePreSys3

We assess skill of the Met Office’s DePreSys3 prediction system at forecasting summer global monsoon precipitation at the seasonal time scale (2–5 month forecast period). DePreSys3 has significant skill at predicting summer monsoon precipitation (r = 0.68), but the skill varies by region and is higher in the northern (r = 0.68) rather than in the southern hemisphere (r = 0.44). To understand the sources of precipitation forecast skill, we decompose the precipitation into several dynamic and thermodynamic components and assess the skill in predicting each. While dynamical changes of the atmospheric circulation primarily contribute to global monsoon variability, skill at predicting shifts in the atmospheric circulation is relatively low. This lower skill partly relates to DePreSys3’s limited ability to accurately simulate changes in atmospheric circulation patterns in response to sea surface temperature forcing. Skill at predicting the thermodynamic component of precipitation is generally higher than for the dynamic component, but thermodynamic anomalies only contribute a small proportion of the total precipitation variability. Finally, we show that the use of a large ensemble improves skill for predicting monsoon precipitation, but skill does not increase beyond 20 members.

Reversal Asymmetry of Rainfall Change Over the Indian Ocean During the Radiative Forcing Increase and Stabilization

AbstractThe rainfall responses over the Indian Ocean (IO) are investigated based on the Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 (RCP4.5) experiments of 13 models, in which the experiments are extended to the year 2300, from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5). During the radiative forcing (RF) increase, the rainfall pattern displays northwest‐southeast dipole asymmetry. After RF stabilization, rainfall increases over the southern IO and decreases over the northern IO where is a wet region in climatology. Diagnostic analysis demonstrates that both the changes in atmospheric circulation (dynamic component) and the moisture increase (thermodynamic component) play a key role in determining this rainfall dipole during RF increase, but the effect of the latter is reduced after RF stabilization. The responses of rainfall, sea surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric circulation are well coupled during the two periods: (a) the anomalous circulation affects the rainfall change by transporting abundant moisture to maintain the energy balance, with easterlies (northerlies) in RF increase (stabilization); and (b) in turn, heat released by the SST warming further induces the circulation change. Furthermore, during RF increase, the attribute of SST pattern is mainly led by ocean dynamics, especially heat transport due to ocean current changes, while after RF stabilization, it is mainly due to ocean heat transport leading by temperature changes.

Is the Indian monsoon rainfall linked to the Southern Ocean sea ice conditions?

In the background of global warming, the necessity for finding a new predictor of Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) is realised recently as the relationship between the ISMR and the predictive physical parameters keeps changing both in space and time. We developed a linkage between the satellite-derived sea ice over the Southern Ocean and ISMR through the interaction of physical processes occurring between the cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmospheric environment. The statistical and possible physical linkage were explored using consistent and reliable 38-year time series observations. Lead-lag cross correlation indicated a significant relationship between Southern Ocean sea ice (SOSI) extent and ISMR over the Bellingshausen–Amundsen Sea (BAS). The most significant relationship was obtained in austral autumn (r = −0.5, p < 0.05) with no time lag. We analysed atmospheric circulation pattern over the BAS and Ross Sea corresponding to extreme rainfall events. Excess (deficit) rainfall years showed anomalous cyclonic (anticyclonic) wind patterns that led to anomalous positive (negative) air temperature that facilitated anomalous negative (positive) sea ice conditions in BAS. Hence, the excess rainfall (deficit) events were observed corresponding to a large negative (positive) anomalous sea ice condition in the BAS. This linkage likely occurred through El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) associated sea surface temperature (SST) variability. To find out the dominant mode of variability and common frequency distribution in the SOSI extent, Niño3.4 SST and ISMR, we have performed the wavelet analysis for exploring the coherence between the respective variables. The spectral analysis showed that both the SOSI extent and ISMR have dominant oscillations in 2–8 years frequency bands similar to the ENSO variability. This observed relationship can be used as the input for future works for physically linking the BAS sea ice condition with the ISMR through the dynamic and thermodynamic ocean-atmospheric components.

Latent Linear Adjustment Autoencoder v1.0: a novel method for estimating and emulating dynamic precipitation at high resolution

Abstract. A key challenge in climate science is to quantify the forced response in impact-relevant variables such as precipitation against the background of internal variability, both in models and observations. Dynamical adjustment techniques aim to remove unforced variability from a target variable by identifying patterns associated with circulation, thus effectively acting as a filter for dynamically induced variability. The forced contributions are interpreted as the variation that is unexplained by circulation. However, dynamical adjustment of precipitation at local scales remains challenging because of large natural variability and the complex, nonlinear relationship between precipitation and circulation particularly in heterogeneous terrain. Building on variational autoencoders, we introduce a novel statistical model – the Latent Linear Adjustment Autoencoder (LLAAE) – that enables estimation of the contribution of a coarse-scale atmospheric circulation proxy to daily precipitation at high resolution and in a spatially coherent manner. To predict circulation-induced precipitation, the Latent Linear Adjustment Autoencoder combines a linear component, which models the relationship between circulation and the latent space of an autoencoder, with the autoencoder's nonlinear decoder. The combination is achieved by imposing an additional penalty in the cost function that encourages linearity between the circulation field and the autoencoder's latent space, hence leveraging robustness advantages of linear models as well as the flexibility of deep neural networks. We show that our model predicts realistic daily winter precipitation fields at high resolution based on a 50-member ensemble of the Canadian Regional Climate Model at 12 km resolution over Europe, capturing, for instance, key orographic features and geographical gradients. Using the Latent Linear Adjustment Autoencoder to remove the dynamic component of precipitation variability, forced thermodynamic components are expected to remain in the residual, which enables the uncovering of forced precipitation patterns of change from just a few ensemble members. We extend this to quantify the forced pattern of change conditional on specific circulation regimes. Future applications could include, for instance, weather generators emulating climate model simulations of regional precipitation, detection and attribution at subcontinental scales, or statistical downscaling and transfer learning between models and observations to exploit the typically much larger sample size in models compared to observations.

Projections of South Asian Summer Monsoon Under Global Warming from 1.5° to 5°C

AbstractThe South Asian summer monsoon (SASM) is one of the most crucial climate components in boreal summer. The future potential changes in the SASM have great importance for climate change adaption and policy setting in this populous region. To understand the SASM changes and its link with the global warming of 1.5°C to 5°C above the preindustrial level, we investigate the changes in the SASM circulation and precipitation based on a large-ensemble simulation conducted with Canadian Earth System Model version 2 (CanESM2). With the global mean surface temperature (GMST) increase, the large-ensemble mean of SASM circulation is projected to weaken almost linearly while the precipitation and precipitable water to enhance quasi-linearly. A double anticyclone along the tropical Indian Ocean is a major anomalous circulation pattern for each additional degree of warming and is responsible for the weakening of the lower-level westerlies. The decreased upper-level land-sea thermal contrast (TCupper) is the main thermal driver for the weakening of the SASM circulation while the lower-level thermal contrast contributes little. The non-linearly decreased TCupper is mainly related to the temperature response to the increased CO2 forcing and convection induced latent heat release in the tropics. The increase in the SASM precipitation is mainly due to the quasi-linearly increased positive contribution of the thermodynamic component, while the dynamic component has a negative impact. Both horizontal moisture advection and moisture convergence contribute to the precipitation increase, and moisture convergence plays a dominant role. These results provide new insight that the SASM changes can be roughly scaled by the GMST changes.

Variable thermal conductivity and diffusivity impact on forced vibrations of thermodiffusive elastic plate

The purpose of this article is to determine the effect of variable thermal conductivity and diffusivity on the transient response of thermoelastic diffusion plate in the light of two-temperature fractional-order generalized thermoelasticity. The boundary of the plate is designed as mechanical, concentration and ramp type thermal loadings on one side and rigidly fixed, insulated and impermeable on the other side. Consideration of variable thermal conductivity and diffusivity as linear functions of thermodynamic temperature and concentration, respectively, leads to non-linear equations of heat conduction and mass diffusion, which are transformed into a linear form by introducing Kirchhoff’s transformation. Linear governing equations obtained are solved by using the Laplace–Fourier transform technique. In the transform space, the closed form of expressions for conductive and thermodynamic temperatures, displacement and stress components, concentration and chemical potential are obtained. The mathematical inversion technique is employed to invert the Laplace and Fourier transform, and numerical results are obtained for various quantities for copper material. The numerically obtained solutions are depicted graphically to illustrate the impact of various considered parameters on conductive and thermodynamic temperature, normal stress and mass concentration.

Projected Increase in Probability of East Asian Heavy Rainy Summer in the 21st Century by CMIP5 Models

In the summer of 1998, heavy rainfall persisted throughout the summer and resulted in a severe prolonged flood event. Will a similar rainy summer happen again? To date, many studies have investigated the projected changes in seasonality or daily extreme precipitation events over East Asia; however, few studies have focused on the changes in extreme summer-averaged East Asian rainfall. We referred to this type of summer as “heavy rainy summer (HRS)” and investigated future changes in its probability, by analyzing CMIP5 model outputs in historical simulation (HIST) and under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. All models projected an increased probability of HRS by a factor of two to three. Both the projected East Asian summer rainfall (EASR), i.e. EASRRCPs−EASRHIST, in climatology and HRS would intensify significantly. The increased EASR could be attributed to significantly intensified water vapor transport (WVT) originating from the tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) and the eastern subtropical North Pacific (SNP), which result from thermodynamic component. The WVT from TIO would supply more moisture for EASR because its stronger intensity and faster rate of increase. Meanwhile, the EASR anomaly in HRS relative to climatology, i.e. EASRHRS−EASRCLM, would increase by approximately 11%–33%. In HIST, the associated WVT anomaly, caused by only dynamic component, converges moisture from adjacent land and ocean. However, under RCPs, the WVT anomaly from TIO, resulted from thermodynamic component, would appear and increase triple to be comparable to the one from the eastern SNP. The latter would result from dynamic component but increase by only half.