Thermoelectric Generator Module Research Articles

Performance of thermoelectric generator system to generate electrical output from a low-grade waste heat temperature under linear and swirling waste heat streams

A thermoelectric generator (TEG) module converts heat directly into electrical energy. Waste heat from a process is a viable heat source for TEG modules to support the energy sustainability agenda. A module was designed to recover low-temperature waste heat from a 1 kW fuel cell stack used in a mini hydrogen vehicle. The module was constructed using a single TEG cell that receives heat directly on its surface from the waste heat stream, coupled with a heat pipe connected to a finned heat sink to effectively cool the cold junction of the TEG cell. This research presents a comparison of the module characteristics when it is operated under direct impinging jet flow and swirl flow waste heat streams at 60°C, while the cold junction of the cell is cooled under stationary vehicle conditions (natural convection cooling) and cruising conditions (forced convection cooling) at an air speed of 5 m/s. Results indicate that the swirling effect increases the maximum power point (MPP) by 60%. The introduction of swirl to the heating stream is a viable approach to significantly enhance the recovery of low-grade waste heat using TEG. However, the MPP shows a greater increase of 70 to 80% due to the forced cooling effect, indicating that cold junction cooling has a more significant influence on the MPP compared to the swirl effect.

A reconfigurable architecture for maximizing energy harvesting of thermoelectric generators in non-stationary conditions

The use of Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) has proliferated across a multitude of applications for energy harvesting. As more modules are employed to recover greater amounts of energy, the temperature mismatch between them increases. This results in each module operating at a distinct maximum power point, thereby reducing the overall system efficiency. Furthermore, in dynamic applications such as automotive scenarios, the temperatures of the thermoelectric generators are not constant, and the maximum power point accordingly shifts. A fixed architecture is unable to cope with these fluctuating situations. Therefore, this paper introduces a reconfigurable architecture capable of harnessing maximum energy at any given moment, improving energy recovery compared to a fixed architecture. Optimization techniques, lean methodologies, and clustering approaches are employed to efficiently design the reconfigurable TEG, which enables modification of the electrical connections inside the TEG modules and the number of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) modules. A use case is presented where the reconfigurable TEG is compared with fixed, yet optimized, TEG configurations under mixed driving modes. In this specific case, the results demonstrate that the reconfigurable TEG achieves enhanced performance in dynamic environments with two MPPTs under mixed scenarios, reaching an efficiency of 96.3% and a 0.29% improvement in energy recovery.

Thermoelectric generators versus photovoltaic solar panels: Power and cost analysis

In the current study, the concept of building a power plant using thermoelectric generator (TEG) modules is investigated, both technically and economically. The hypothesized thermoelectric generation power plant is a modular system, consisting of a large array of electrically connected thermoelectric generator units for generating clean electricity with-out greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, noise, or hazardous solid wastes. The envisioned thermoelectric generation power plant (TEGPP) considered here is assumed to utilize solar radiation as a heat source, and water as a heat sink. The viability of such a concept is examined in the current study based on available specifications of a high-output thermo-electric generator module released in the market (TEG1-24111-6.0). Benchmarking is car-ried out considering a high-efficiency photovoltaic (PV) panel in the market (SunPower SPR-MAX3-400), assuming that it operates under standard solar radiation of 1,000 W, and with a standard panel temperature of 25 C, causing it to give an output electric power of 400 W (DC or direct current). It is found that in order to have an electric power of a thermoelectric generator unit similar to that of a photovoltaic panel of equal surface area, the temperature at the hot side of the thermoelectric generator unit should be about 70 C if the cold-side temperature is 30 C. However; under this output power equiva-lence, the price of the thermoelectric generator unit is about 90 times that of a photovol-taic panel of equal size (based on prices of October 2023). At an elevated hot-side tem-perature of 300 C for the thermoelectric generator unit (with the cold-side temperature being still 30 C), the thermoelectric generator unit can generate electric power that is about 25 times the power generated by a photovoltaic panel of an equal geometric area. This big boost in the output power still does not counteract the large cost difference be-tween the thermoelectric generator technology and the photovoltaic technology, where the per-watt(electric) cost in the case of thermoelectric generators is 3.5 times its value in the case of photovoltaic panels. Thus, the TEG technology in its intensified generation mode is still relatively more expensive compared to the PV technology. The practical im-plications of the current study are excluding the thermoelectric generation (based on the Seebeck effect) concept from large-scale commercial power plants, and viewing thermoe-lectric generators as sources of small electric power for waste heat management or con-venient power sources for small mobile devices.

A novel thermoelectric generator equipped with magnetized Ferro-Fluid coolant for automobile exhaust heat Recovery: A numerical study

Thermoelectric generator (TEG) is a promising energy-converting device that produces electricity from the temperature difference between a heat source and a heat sink. Enhancing the heat transfer between the TEG and the heat source or heat sink can improve the TEG performance. This study proposes a novel automobile exhaust TEG. The novelty originates from the fact that the proposed TEG uses magnetized Ferro-fluid flow as coolant to enhance cooling rate. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach, through C++ coding in the OpenFOAM open-source software package, is used to assess the system’s performance. The results indicate that employing the magnetized Ferro-fluid flow can favorably reduce the cold side temperature of the TEG module, leading to a 5.5 % voltage rise. It is also shown that to achieve the same voltage enhancement without the use of the proposed magnetized Ferro-fluid flow, a tough task of a 470 % rise in the cold side mass flow rate is required. A parametric study reveals that the effectiveness of using the magnetized Ferro-fluid flow decreases with the exhaust temperature but is almost independent of the exhaust mass flow rate. This study also introduces the best location for the magnetic sources.

Characterization of thermoelectric generator modules: Numerical and analytical study on heat flow determination under transient temperature conditions

Characterization of thermoelectric generator modules: Numerical and analytical study on heat flow determination under transient temperature conditions

A Novel Sensible Smart Mask Using Micro Thermal-Electric Energy Conversion Elements.

In poor sanitary conditions, people need to wear masks to protect the health of their respiratory system. Meanwhile, it is necessary for patients with respiratory diseases to have real-time measurement on respiratory rate when wearing masks. Thermoelectric generation provides a new approach and method for powering and sensing small low-power devices, and has good application prospects in smart masks. In view of this, a novel sensible smart mask using micro thermal-electric energy conversion elements (TECE) is proposed in this paper, which can detect and display the respiratory rate in real time. First, the temperature conversion characteristic of micro TECE represented by the thermoelectric generator module is analyzed. Second, the respiratory characteristics of the human body are studied, and the respiratory rate sensing effect based on micro TECEs is analyzed and verified. Then, a sensible smart mask, which can show respiratory rate in real time, is developed by integrating MCU and OLED module. Finally, human respiratory rate experiments are conducted, the experimental results verified the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed sensible smart mask.

Performance analysis and optimization of insulation layers on a novel building-integrated photovoltaic system

Conventional photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator (PV-TEG) systems are hindered by significant heat transfer losses, which impair power generation throughout the year. Addressing this challenge, a novel PV-MCHP-TEG system is proposed, integrating photovoltaic (PV) cell, microchannel heat pipe (MCHP) array, and thermoelectric generator (TEG) module components with strategically placed insulation layers to facilitate year-round, day-and-night power generation. This study primarily investigates the impact of insulation layers on heat transfer processes, employing a comprehensive analysis and optimization approach. Utilizing Simulink software, the multifaceted influence of insulation layer variables, including locations, thicknesses, and materials, on TEG efficiency across various conditions was examined. Further, a comparative analysis was undertaken to evaluate the dynamic payback period across different modes. The optimization of these insulation parameters revealed that incorporating Polyisocyanurate Foam (PIR) as the insulation material in the optimized PV-MCHP-TEG system achieved an efficiency of 19.32 %, marking a 2.41 % improvement over conventional PV-TEG systems without insulation. Furthermore, the dynamic payback period was reduced to 11.34 years, representing a decrease of 1.05 years compared to conventional PV-TEG systems. These findings underscore the potential of our proposed system to outperform existing solutions by optimizing thermal management through insulation, thereby offering a promising avenue for enhancing photovoltaic-thermoelectric energy conversion.

Thermoelectric generator for energy production from renewable sources

Thermoelectric generators (TEG) produce electrical energy from a temperature difference between the cold and hot side of TEG modules (Seebeck effect); in principle, they can be used at temperature differences greater than 3 K [1]. Thermoelectric energy generation is primarily known for supplying self-sufficient sensors or in exhaust systems of motor vehicle internal combustion engines [2], where high temperature differences of up to 700 K are used. In this paper, basic investigations are carried out in order to expand the power range of thermoelectric energy generation and their potential for the energy transition. To this end, the area of application should be expanded to include medium and small temperature differences. The output characteristic of a TEG module has a power maximum, which increases quadratically with the temperature difference and linearly with the module area. At a temperature difference of 40 K, an output of 250 W/m2 can be generated. A solar module can generate 150 W/m2 in full sunlight; this output is only available for 12 % of the year given the 1000 full-load hours of sunshine that are usual in our latitudes. A continuous thermoelectric energy source could provide energy all year. Under optimal conditions, an annual usage time of 5000 hours and a service life of 10 years, electricity production costs of around 10 Cents/kWh can be expected [3]. This price is quite comparable to other renewable energy sources (photovoltaics, wind).

Pioneering hybrid heat recovery systems: Thermoelectric generators as insulators and channels boosted by vortex generators

Vortex generators are very effective tools in increasing heat transfer from one region to another, especially by convection, and appear to be a very promising concept to be coupled with heat recovery systems. On the other hand, Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) are devices able to convert differences in temperature into electrical power using the Seebeck effect, the main advantage being working on high or even low differences in temperature. These TEG modules could be very effective tools in the hybridization of heat recovery systems. In this context, the present paper suggests an innovative system that couples three important energy axes together such as Heat recovery, TEGs, and Vortex generators. The current study employs a TEG in a rectangular channel to analyze the influence of the TEG on the flow and the effect of the effect of flow regime on producing electric power in order to assess the viability of this recently proposed concept. The investigation is conducted by varying the Reynolds number in a range of five values: 1000, 2000, 4000, 7000, and 10,000, applying six different configurations. Consequently, the results show that several factors affect the electrical power generated by TEG such as the emplacement, angle of attack, and absence/presence of vortex generators. On the other side, the heat recovered by the flow is affected by the TEG and Re, where the highest heat recovery is achieved at Re = 10,000 for configuration 4 with electrical power of 7.4 W, and for configuration 5 heat recovered by the flow of 1913 W. Besides, it was concluded that TEGs decreased the losses in both hot and cold sides by 1.42 times.

Thermoelectric generator modules based on warp knitted glass fiber-metal hybrid composites

Thermoelectric generators (TEG) offer the potential to convert waste heat into electricity and thus contribute to reduce CO2 emissions. The conversion of electrical energy is based on the Seebeck effect of two electrically conductive materials without any mechanical conversion and therefore without wear. The application of conventional TEG modules is limited due to cost-intensive materials and production technology of TEG, and a limited structure design for the integration of Thermoelectric Elements (TE). To address this research challenge, this work presents the development of thermoelectric composite modules based on glass fiber reinforced warp knitted spacer fabrics. In a double needle bed warp knitting machine, glass fibers in warp, weft and pile direction are integrated. The contacting of TE in the form of wires with 45 TE cm−2 were implemented. A TEG module with 20.25 cm2 in size showed a maximum output power of 2.7 μW at a temperature difference of 60 K. The Seebeck factor of S = 142 μV K−1 was determined using this composite TEG with 10 TE strands and nearly 400 thermocouples. A thermoelectric model was developed for the calculation and the modules were characterized. For the first time, thermoelectric composite modules with sufficient structural-mechanical properties in terms of compressive and bending stiffness were realized based on spacer warp knitted fabrics, which can be used for the operation of sensors or small devices.

Enhanced performance of thermoelectric generation system by increasing temperature difference using spray cooling

Thermoelectric generation system (TEGS) can directly convert the waste heat to electricity in practice. The power generation is highly impacted by the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends. To significantly improve the temperature difference, various cooling technologies have been applied to TEGS. However, there is still room to further increase the power generation efficiency of TEGS by enhancing the cooling performance. Herein, spray cooling was introduced to the TEGS and influencing factors were investigated. The experimental study demonstrates that, upon the spray cooling, the cold-end temperature can be dramatically reduced up to 27 °C. Further, the output performance of the TEGS was substantially increased by optimizing spray heights, flow rates and heat source temperatures, etc. For example, for the spray height of 3 cm, the TEGS achieves a maximum output voltage because the thermoelectric generation module (TGM) is completely covered by the spray area in this study. Moreover, the temperature difference between cold/hot ends and voltage of the TEGS are further increased to 55 °C and 1.39 V at a flow rate of 100 L/min. On the other hand, increasing the heat source temperature (hot end temperature) can also strongly improve the output performance of the TEGS. Particularly, compared to passive air cooling, spray cooling can enable the TEGS to significantly increase its output voltage and current by 17 and 27 times, respectively. Finally, this study would potentially provide a new cooling strategy to strongly enhance the output performance of TEGS.

An electrical analogy model for performance evaluation of natural air-cooled TEG modules considering nonlinear effect of heat convection

With the outstanding merits of the simple principle and low computational cost, the electrical analogy model of thermoelectric generator (TEG) modules plays an important role in evaluating the performance of thermoelectric energy harvesting systems. However, owing to the simplification of the heat dissipation structure and difficulty in determining the heat dissipation parameters, it is difficult to accurately describe the nonlinear influence of thermal convection on the heat dissipation performance of the TEG module under natural air-cooled conditions, thereby reducing the estimation accuracy of the module temperature and output. A new nonlinear electrical analogy model to evaluate the performance of natural air-cooled TEG modules was proposed in this study. The proposed model more accurately describes the nonlinear influence of thermal convection on the thermal dynamic characteristics of the TEG module by introducing a heat transfer branch between the cold and hot side surfaces of the TEG module and the environment. A parameter extraction method based on multi-objective optimization and the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) was proposed to overcome the problem of the heat dissipation parameters of natural air-cooled TEG modules. The experimental results show that under natural convection conditions, the maximum estimation errors of the temperature and output voltage evaluated by the proposed model and parameter identification method are less than 6.18 % and 9.14 %, respectively. Under forced convection, the maximum estimation errors of the temperature and output voltage were less than 7.36 % and 8.71 %, respectively. The above estimation errors are significantly lower than the traditional model.

Hybrid Power Generation: Experimental Investigation of PCM and TEG Integration with Photovoltaic Systems

Global warming and escalating energy consumption have presented pressing issues, catalyzing a pivotal shift towards environmental development worldwide. In recent years, the installed capacity of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells, particularly crystalline silicon cells, has experienced a significant surge. Among the myriad studies aimed at enhancing the efficiency of PV cells' power generation, one prominent avenue involves reducing the internal temperature of these cells. The primary objectives of the present study revolved around augmenting power generation and improving photocell efficiency. This was pursued through the strategic blending of nanoparticles with phase change material (PCM), with variations in insertion percentages to modulate the heat absorption capacity of the PV panel. Additionally, the study sought to evaluate the impact of integrating Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) modules and a water-based nano-fluid cooling system beneath the TEG setup. These measures aimed to effectively monitor the conversion of waste heat into electrical energy. Consequently, the proposed orientation of PV panels – involving PCM adjustment via alteration of insertion percentages, coupled with TEG integration and water-based nano-fluid cooling technology – holds significant promise for enhancing efficiency and mitigating solar cell degradation.

Metal-Halogen Interactions Inducing Phase Separation for Self-Healing and Tough Ionogels with Tunable Thermoelectric Performance.

Ionic liquid-based thermoelectric gels become a compelling candidate for thermoelectric power generation and sensing due to their giant thermopower, good thermal stability, high flexibility, and low-cost production. However, the materials reported to date suffer from canonical trade-offs between self-healing ability, stretchability, strength, and ionic conductivity. Herein, a self-healing and tough ionogel (PEO/LiTFSI/EmimCl) with tunable thermoelectric properties by tailoring metal-halogen bonding interactions, is developed. Different affinities between polymer matrix and salts are exploited to induce phase separation, resulting in simultaneous enhancement of ionic conductivity and mechanical strength. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and spectroscopic analyses show that Cl- ions impair the lithium-ether oxygen coordination, leading to changes in chain conformation. The migration difference between cations and anions is thus widened and a transition from n-type to p-type thermoelectric ionogels is realized. Furthermore, the dynamic interactions of metal-ligand coordination and hydrogen bonding yield autonomously self-healing capability, large stretchability (2000%), and environment-friendly recyclability. Benefiting from these fascinating properties, the multifunctional PEO-based ionogels are applied in sensors, supercapacitors, and thermoelectric power generation modules. The strategy of tuning solvation dominance to address the trade-offs in thermoelectric ionogels and optimize their macroscopic properties offers new possibilities for the design of advanced ionogels.

Study of an LLC Converter for Thermoelectric Waste Heat Recovery Integration in Shipboard Microgrids

Static waste heat recovery, by means of thermoelectric generator (TEG) modules, constitutes a fast-growing energy harvesting technology on the way towards greener transportation. Many commercial solutions are already available for small internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, whereas further development and cost reductions of TEG devices expand their applicability at higher-power transportation means (i.e., ships and aircrafts). In this light, the integration of waste heat recovery based on TEG modules in a shipboard distribution network is studied in this work. Several voltage step-up techniques are considered, whereas the most suitable ones are assessed via the LTspice simulation platform. The design procedure of the selected LLC resonant converter is presented and analyzed in detail. Furthermore, a flexible control strategy is proposed, capable of either output voltage regulation (constant voltage) or maximum power point tracking (MPPT), according to the application demands. Finally, both simulations and experiments (on a suitable laboratory testbench) are performed. The obtained measurements indicate the high efficiency that can be achieved with the LLC converter for a wide operating area as well as the functionality and adequate performance of the control scheme in both operating conditions.

High-Performance W-Doped Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 Flexible Thermoelectric Films and Generators.

Bi-Sb-Te-based thermoelectric materials have the best room-temperature thermoelectric properties, but their inherent brittleness and rigidity limit their application in the wearable field. In this study, W-doped p-type Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 (W-BST) thin films were prepared using magnetron sputtering on polyimide substrates to create thermoelectric generators (TEGs). Bending tests showed that the thin film has excellent flexibility and mechanical durability, meeting the flexible requirements of wearable devices. W doping can significantly increase the carrier concentration, Seebeck coefficient, and electrical conductivity of BST thin films. At 300 K, the power factor of the W-BST film is 2.25 times higher than that of the undoped film, reaching 13.75 μW cm-1 K-2. First-principles calculations showed that W doping introduces significant impurity peaks in the bandgap, in which W d electrons remarkably hybridize with the Sb and Te p electrons, leading to an improved electrical conductivity of BST films. Furthermore, W doping significantly reduces the work function of BST films, thereby improving the carrier mobility. A TEG module fabricated from four layers of W-BST thin films achieved a maximum output power density of 6.91 mW cm-2 at a temperature difference of 60 K. Application tests showed that the flexible TEG module could power a portable clock using the temperature difference between body temperature and room temperature. At a medium temperature of 439 K, the assembled TEG module can provide a stable output voltage of 1.51 V to power a LED. This study demonstrates the feasibility of combining inorganic thermoelectric materials with flexible substrates to create high-performance flexible TEGs.

Hybridization of heat recovery from exhaust gas of boilers using thermoelectric generators

This study investigates the possibilities for energy recovery and environmental effect reduction of waste heat, a consequence of industrial activities. The main objective of the work is to integrate thermoelectric generators (TEGs) into industrial hybrid waste heat recovery system. The study consists of combining TEGs modules with a boiler waste heat recovery system with Rockwool insulation, taking into consideration variables like thermal resistance, power output, water temperature, and energy conversion efficiency. The results show that TEG placement has a major impact on system performance. One of the promising configuration is TEGs placed close to heat source, especially outside exhaust pipe outer walls, where electrical power up to 27 W can be generated and heat of 4215 W can be recovered from the exhaust gas.

Experimental and computational thermoelectric generator for waste heat recovery for aeronautic application

This study is a comprehensive exploration of a polymer nanocomposite-based Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) developed within the European project InComEss, specifically designed for aeronautical applications. The focus lies on evaluating the TEG's performance under thermal conditions representative of various aircraft flight stages. The TEG module, consisting of four sections with 17 p-n strips each, is constructed from aerospace-grade polycarbonate, exhibiting dimensions of 50 * 1 * 0.3 mm. In the laboratory phase, the TEG's performance is systematically assessed through a series of experiments. Temperature gradients, ranging from −15 °C to 55 °C, emulate conditions experienced during ascending and descending flight stages. The results indicate promising outcomes, showcasing the potential viability of polymer-based TEGs for aeronautical applications. Specifically, temperature gradients of 40–70 °C, representative of atmospheric conditions and wing leading edge skin conditions, are applied across four test trials. The model validation demonstrates creditable agreement between computational outcomes and experimental data. Insights gained from COMSOL Multiphysics simulations includes temperature distribution, electric potential, and flow dynamics. Simulations conducted under varied temperature ranges provide valuable insights into the TEG's performance variability. Key findings include temperature distribution profiles, electric potential outputs under open and closed-circuit conditions, and a detailed flow analysis within a controlled thermal environment. The validated computational model not only enhances understanding of the TEG's behaviour, but also establishes a foundation for optimizing design parameters to enhance thermoelectric efficiency. The error analysis underscores the model's reliability, exhibiting an average error of 5.68 % between computational and experimental results, reinforcing its suitability for scientific investigations of this nature.

Liquid metal-enhanced thermoelectric generator for high-temperature thermal harvesting

It is a challenge to achieve high output power of the thermoelectric generator (TEG) for high-temperature waste heat recovery due to the working fluids with low thermal conductivity (such as air) or low tolerance of temperature (water or oil). In this paper, the gallium-based liquid metal (LM) with a high boiling point (>1000 ℃) and thermal conductivity (>20 W/mK) are introduced to significantly enhance heat charging and discharging at the hot/cold sides of TEG. We also developed an electromagnetic induction pumping method for the effective LM-driven flow at high temperatures. A three-dimensional coupling multi-parameter optimization simulation model of LM-based TEG was developed to reveal the internal heat transfer and power generation mechanism for clarifying the impact factors of the performance. The results have shown that the power generation capacity can be effectively improved by increasing the inlet temperature (Thot-in). It is worth noting that the temperature difference (ΔT) of the TEG module is severely limited by the thermal resistance (Rcapacity) of the LM heat capacity, such as, when the flow rate of 2 L/min, the Rcapacity accounts for 90.6 % (0.020 ℃/W). It is easier to achieve a larger open circuit voltage by increasing the height of the thermoelectric leg, but the Pmax is constantly weakened. Compared with Xceltherm 600 and Solar salt, LM heat transfer fluid has more obvious advantages in enhancing the power generation performance of the system. The LM-based TEG experiment platform was established to study heat transfer and power generation characteristics. The results have demonstrated that good consistency was proved by comparing experimental and numerical data. And the Pmax of the LM-based TEG system is 0.16 W/cm2 at ΔT of 136 ℃. LM-based TEG can open new perspectives for broad applications in high-temperature waste heat recovery.

Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting from the Roof and Attics of a Building

Globally people are faced with difficulties in environmental pollution, increasing power costs, and global warming. As such researchers are focusing on enhancing energy-harvesting using thermoelectric generators for power generation to lessen the difficulties. Through the Seebeck effect, thermoelectric generators (TEGs) have proven their ability to convert thermal energy into electric power. Given the unique benefits they present, thermoelectric generators have arisen in the recent decade as a possible alternative to other green power generation technologies. A thermoelectric generator (TEG) is a solid-state device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy. TEG consists of elements of p and n-type semiconductors, connected thermally in parallel and electrically in series. In this paper, one hundred and ninety-two thermoelectric generators connected in series and parallel were used to investigate the thermal energy potential at the roof and attic area for domestic application for 20 days from the falling solar radiation on a residential prototype in Bashar, Wase Local government area of Plateau State. A theoretical analysis was used in determining the average output power (P) due to the delta T across the thermoelectric generator module junction. The load resistance value of the thermoelectric generator configuration was evaluated. The results show that the TEG generated power output ranging from 217 mW to 1.99 W throughout the day, 5.97 mW to 13.8 mW in the morning, and 6.8 mW to 36.9 mW in the evening. Furthermore, The finding also reveals that the attic side has the capacity to store thermal energy, which can be harnessed owing to the fast heat transfer to the surroundings during the convection process. In conclusion, solar irradiance has a major impact on the system.