Thermal Restraint Research Articles

Thermal restraint of a bacterial exopolysaccharide of shallow vent origin

To dynamically characterize the thermal properties of the fructose-rich exopolysaccharide (EPS1-T14), produced by the marine thermophilic Bacillus licheniformis T14, the Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy was coupled to variable temperature ranging from ambient to 80°C.The spectra were analyzed by the following innovative mathematical tools: i) non-ideal spectral deviation, ii) OH-stretching band frequency center shift, iii) spectral distance, and iv) wavelet cross-correlation analysis.The thermal restraint analysis revealed that the whole EPS1-T14 system possessed high stability until 80°C, and suggested that fucose was mainly involved in the EPS1-T14 thermal stability, whereas glucose was responsible for its molecular flexibility.Our results provide novel insights into the thermal stability properties of the whole EPS1-T14 and into the role of its main monosaccharidic units. As a new biopolymer, the thermostable EPS1-T14 could be used in traditional biotechnology fields and in new biomedical areas, as nanocarriers, requiring high temperature processes.

Polymeric Systems Under External Thermal Stress Studied by FTIR Technique

Background: Temperature behavior of a class of PolyEthylene Oxide and Ethylene Glycol (EG) by means of InfraRed spectroscopy as a function of temperature and concentration. Methods: EG and PEO with Mw of 1000 were purchased from Aldrich-Chemie; To collect the FTIR spectra in the 39°C-80°C temperature range by means of a FTIR Vertex 70V spectrometer by Bruker Optics. Spectra were obtained using an average of 36 scans with a resolution of 4 cm-1 in a window range of 400 ÷ 4000 cm-1. Each measure was performed under vacuum in order to minimize spectral contributions due to residual water vapor and finally the data were processed through the OPUS/Mentor software interface, Mathematica and Matlab. Results: The addition of EG to PEO increases the thermal restraint of the polymeric matrix due an increase of the H-bond connectivity. Conclusion: The analysis highlights an increased H-bonded connectivity in the polymeric mixture, which determines a higher resistance to temperature changes of the mixture. Keywords: Ethylene glycol, PolyEthylene oxide, FTIR spectroscopy, hypsochromic frequency shift, polymeric mixture, H-bonded.

Why Broadgate Phase 8 composite floor did not fail under fire

PurposeThis paper aims to present the findings of a numerical investigation into the performance of the steel-concrete composite floor involved in Broadgate Phase 8 fire.Design/methodology/approachThe investigation is conducted by carrying out a 3-D thermomechanical analysis of a composite floor similar to the one involved in the fire using ANSYS. Four fire scenarios are investigated, with each producing a unique stress – strain pattern. The results obtained are compared with the observations made after the fire and inferences drawn.FindingsThe results obtained are found to be correlated with the observations made after the fire. The performance of the composite floor is found to be dominated by development of large strains, leading to large deflections. Furthermore, colder parts of the structure, through redistribution of forces, are found to have a profound impact on the ability of a composite floor to resist heating effects. From the findings, it is concluded that connections’ design, occurrence of membrane action and thermal restraints were the key reasons the floor did not fail.Originality valueThe study takes a more forensic approach. This is a departure from majority of published literature, where comparison is usually between experimental and numerical results. By comparing the findings from a real fire with those of a numerical investigation, the study provides an insight into the accuracy of applying numerical models for the prediction of effects of fire on structural behaviour.

Thermal restraint on PEG-EG mixtures by FTIR investigations and wavelet cross-correlation analysis

The aim of the present work is to investigate the thermal response of PolyEthylene Glycol 1000 (PEG1000) and of its mixtures with the monomer Ethylene Glycol (EG). On purpose Attenuated Total Reflectance Infra-Red (ATR-IR) spectra were collected, in the spectral range spanning from 400 cm−1 to 4000 cm−1, on PEG1000 and on its mixtures with EG, as a function of concentration and temperature, through positive thermal scans, i.e. by increasing temperature. It will be shown that ATR-IR technique reveals a powerful tool for the characterization of the thermal response in polymeric systems. The registered spectra have been analyzed both on the whole investigated spectral range, as well as, separately, on the restricted intramolecular OH stretching vibrational contribution region. In the first case the displacement of the spectral features from the spectrum at the lowest temperature, taken as reference spectrum, shows a lower dependence for the mixture. As far as the intramolecular OH vibrational contribution is concerned, besides a conventional analysis in terms of band components, three different data analysis procedures have been applied, i.e. the characterization of the temperature dependence of the intramolecular OH stretching center frequency, of the spectral distance and of the wavelet cross correlation coefficient. The three applied data analysis approaches indicates that the addition of a small amount of pure EG to PEG1000 significantly influences the OH vibrational properties of the PEG1000 polymeric matrix. The three different methods furnish a unique coherent interpretative picture which supports the validity of the applied approaches. Furthermore, the analyses show the presence of a higher thermal restraint for the PEG + EG mixture which confirms that, within the three-dimensional networks of hydrogen bonded EG-PEG1000 mixtures, a key role is played by EG in determining an increase of the hydrogen bond network density.

Applications of a LITS semi-empirical model in plain and reinforced concrete members subjected to a uniaxial compressive load

Abstract This paper describes a LITS (Load Induced Thermal Strain) semi empirical model and two practical applications in simple and reinforced concrete members. The model allows a preliminary and straightforward quantification of the total strain of concrete structures submitted to heating and a sustained compressive load, without the need to use complex numerical analyses. The model takes into account the effect of the thermal expansion restraint due to the boundary conditions (temperature and compressive load) and can be adopted for several types of concretes (conventional, high strength and ultra high performance). In the first example, the total deformations of simple concrete specimens from KHOURY (2006) are determined. In the second example, the total displacement of a reinforced concrete column from SCHNEIDER et al (1994) is calculated. A comparison between the results of the model and the experimental values demonstrated the reliability of the semi-empirical model to obtain a preliminary quantification of the total deformations of concrete.

Contrasting dynamics of fragile and non-fragile polyalcohols through the glass, and dynamical, transitions: A comparison of neutron scattering and dielectric relaxation data for sorbitol and glycerol

BackgroundGlycerol and sorbitol are glass-forming hydrogen-bonded systems characterized by intriguing properties which make these systems very interesting also from the applications point of view. The goal of this work is to relate the hydrogen-bonded features, relaxation dynamics, glass transition properties and fragility of these systems, in particular to seek insight into their very different liquid fragilities. MethodsThe comparison between glycerol and sorbitol is carried out by collecting the elastic incoherent neutron scattering (EINS) intensity as a function of temperature and of the instrumental energy resolution. ResultsIntensity data vs temperature and resolution are analyzed in terms of thermal restraint and Resolution Elastic Neutron Scattering (RENS) approaches. ConclusionsThe number of OH groups, which are related to the connecting sites, is a significant parameter both in the glass transition and in the dynamical transition. On the other hand, the disordered nature of sorbitol is confirmed by the existence of different relaxation processes. General significanceFrom the applications point of view, glycerol and sorbitol have remarkable bioprotectant properties which make these systems useful in different technological and industrial fields. Furthermore, polyols are rich in glassforming liquid phenomenology and highly deserving of study in their own right. The comparison of EINS and calorimetric data on glycerol and sorbitol helps provide a connection between structural relaxation, dynamical transition, glass transition, and fragility. The evaluation of the inflection point in the elastic intensity behavior as a function of temperature and instrumental energy resolution provides a confirmation of the validity of the RENS approach.This article is part of a Special Issue entitled “Science for Life” Guest Editor: Dr. Austen Angell, Dr. Salvatore Magazù and Dr. Federica Migliardo

Effects of non-uniform temperature distribution on critical member temperature of steel tubular truss

This paper examines the effects of thermal restraint, caused by non-uniform temperature distribution in different members, on the failure temperatures of critical members of steel tubular trusses. Non-uniform temperature distribution develops in trusses exposed to localised fire attack. The truss member nearest to the fire source experiences the highest temperature, with reduced temperatures in the nearby members. The number of the nearby truss members being heated and their temperatures will affect the failure temperature of the critical truss member which has the highest temperature. The aim of this paper is to develop a simplified method to account for the effects of different numbers of members being simultaneously heated to different temperatures on the development of compression force and failure temperature of the critical member.Finite Element (FE) simulations were carried out for Circular Hollow Section (CHS) trusses using the commercial Finite Element software ABAQUS v6.10-1 which has previously been validated by the authors. The simulation trusses were subjected to constant mechanical loads and then increasing temperatures until failure. The elevated temperature stress-strain curves were based on EN-1993-1-2 [1]. Initial geometrical imperfections were included, based on the lowest buckling mode from eigenvalue analysis.The numerical study examined the effects of truss type, critical member slenderness, applied load ratio and axial restraint stiffness ratio on the failure temperatures of the critical truss members. The numerical simulation results were used to check the accuracy of a proposed simplified calculation method, combining linear elastic static truss analysis at ambient temperature and analytical equations to calculated the failure temperatures of thermally restrained truss members based on the regression equations of Wang et al. [2]. The calculation method was shown to be sufficiently accurate for fire resistant design purpose.

Flexural behaviour of beams made of cold-formed steel sigma-shaped sections at ambient and fire conditions

This article reports a series of flexural tests at ambient and fire conditions on simply supported cold-formed steel beams made of one or two sigma-shaped profiles. It was assessed the critical temperature and time as well as the effect of the stiffeners on the beams under different restraining conditions, including no restraints, partial axial and beam supports rotational thermal restraints. The results showed that beams with web stiffeners may have different structural response in fire depending on the section shape. The beams without web stiffeners and not axially restrained presented the best structural behaviour under fire conditions.

Homoleptic 2,2'-bipyridine metalates(-I) of iron and cobalt, one cocrystallized with an anthracene radical anion and the other with neutral anthracene.

Homoleptic 2,2'-bipyridine (bipy) metalates of iron and cobalt have been synthesized directly from the corresponding homoleptic anthracene metalates. In the iron structure, bis[([2.2.2]cryptand)potassium(I)] tris(2,2'-bipyridine)ferrate(-I) anthracene(-I), [K(C18H36N2O6)]2[Fe(C10H8N2)3](C14H10), the asymmetric unit contains one potassium complex cation in a general position, the Fe center and one and a half bipy ligands of the ferrate complex on a crystallographic twofold axis that includes the Fe atom, and one half of an anthracene radical anion whose other half is generated by a crystallographic inversion center. The cations and anions are well separated and the geometry about the Fe center is essentially octahedral. In the cobalt structure, ([2.2.2]cryptand)potassium(I) bis(2,2'-bipyridine)cobaltate(-I) anthracene hemisolvate tetrahydrofuran (THF) disolvate, [K(C18H36N2O6)][Co(C10H8N2)2]·0.5C14H10·2C4H8O, the asymmetric unit contains the cation, anion, and both cocrystallized THF solvent molecules in general positions, and one half of a cocrystallized anthracene molecule whose other half is generated by a crystallographic inversion center. The cation and anion are well separated and the ligand planes in the cobaltate anion are periplanar. Each anthracene molecule is midway between and is oriented perpendicular to a pair of symmetry-related bipy ligands such that aromatic donor-acceptor interactions may play a role in the packing arrangement. The lengths of the bonds that connect the bipy rings support the assertion that the ligands are bipy radical anions in the iron structure. However, in the case of cobalt, these lengths are between the known ranges for a bipy radical anion and a bipy dianion, and therefore no conclusion can be made from the crystallography alone. One cocrystallized THF solvent molecule in the cobalt structure was modeled as disordered over three positions with appropriate geometric and thermal restraints, which resulted in a refined component mass ratio of 0.412 (4):0.387 (3):0.201 (3).

Storey stability of unbraced steel frames subjected to non-uniform elevated temperature distribution

Current studies on stability of steel frames are primarily based on the assumption that steel columns are subjected to uniform elevated temperature. However, the temperature distribution of real fire in a building may be non-uniform due to thermal buoyancy effect. In this study, the elastic stability of unbraced steel frames subjected to a non-uniform elevated temperature distribution along the longitudinal direction of the column is investigated based on the concept of storey based buckling and a two zone fire model. First, to simulate a steel column exposed to non-uniform elevated temperature, an analytical model is proposed to examine the effects of axial loading, non-uniform elevated temperature distribution, and thermal boundary restraints on the lateral stiffness of steel columns in unbraced frames. The lateral stiffness equation of the column model is derived based on Euler–Bernoulli beam theory. Then, the procedure to evaluate the stability capacity of unbraced steel frames subjected to non-uniform elevated temperature distribution is concluded. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the evaluation procedure of the proposed method and investigate the frame stability subjected to different scenarios of frame members exposed to the non-uniform elevated temperature distribution. The validity of the proposed method is verified by the numerical analysis with the use of finite element analysis.

Change of the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Mortar Due to Damage by Freeze Thaw Cycles

This paper presents the experimental methods and findings in obtaining the strain behavior of mortar during freezing and thawing cycles (FTC) at the meso-scale under fully saturated condition and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and elastic modulus of mortar after FTC tests. A heat-cool cycle test comparing an oven-dried and undried mortar was also performed prior to the FTC test, confirming that oven drying at 105°C does not affect the CTE of samples, thereby ensuring the reliability of the results. During FTC with constant moisture content, a limitation in the increase in tensile strain was observed and this tensile strain decreased until contraction was observed. The contraction is attributed to the removal of gel pore water arising from negative pressures. Due primarily to the absence of available water supply, the displaced pore water cannot be refilled, which results in contraction at the end of the FTC. More importantly, the results show that after FTC, the CTE of frost damaged mortar increases while its elastic modulus decreases, primarily owing to microcracking when frost damage sets in. Microcracks act as broken bridges that can detach the aggregate from the hardened cement paste and in effect reduces the thermal restraints that each part (fine aggregate and cement paste) exerts on the other. The hardened cement paste can then expand/contract more freely under temperature variation, and thus can significantly affect (increase) the CTE of the whole composite (mortar). Further, stress transfer in the material is prevented due to microcracking resulting in elastic modulus reduction.

Incorporation of Friction Coefficient in the Design Equations for Elevated Temperature Tanks

Storage tanks operating at elevated temperatures (200 °F to 500 °F) need to consider stresses due to thermal expansions and restraints, due to the tank shell and bottom plate interactions and operating conditions in addition to the design requirements for ambient temperature tanks. Appendix M of API Standard 650 provides additional requirements and guidelines for the design of tanks operating at elevated temperatures. These are based on Karcher's method which gives a simplified procedure for determining the stresses (strain range) in the tank wall and bottom plate. A factor named “C” is used for defining the ratio of actual expansion against free expansion of the tank. Such partial expansion causes significant thermal stresses. API uses these stresses to estimate the low cycle fatigue life of the tanks. At present, a range of C values (0.25–1.0) is allowed by API without clear guidelines for selecting a suitable value. In the absence of such guidelines, a set value (like 0.85) is being used irrespective of the tank dimensions and temperature change. The restraint against free expansion is mainly a result of the friction between bottom plate, the foundation medium and the ring wall (if present). We can estimate the C factor by relating it to the friction coefficient. This is explored in the present study. This paper evaluates the current procedure and suggests an alternate method by incorporating the friction coefficient directly in the stress equations, instead of the C-factor. Use of friction coefficient provides an improved basis for selecting C and avoids some of the difficulties.

Punching shear tests on flat concrete slabs exposed to fire

Underground parking structures often consist of flat slabs connected by columns, for which punching shear is often the most critical design criterion. In fire conditions, the punching load can increase due to restraint of the thermal curvature of the slab or due to the expansion of the columns. This increase of the punching load is discussed in the paper by means of a literature review. On the other hand, during fire the punching resistance of the slab decreases due to a gradual reduction of the material properties. This reduction in bearing capacity is studied by means of real scale fire tests, consisting of 6 slabs measuring 3.2×3.5×0.25m with a connected column stub and tested for punching shear with a specially designed loading frame. Two reference tests are executed at ambient temperature conditions and four slabs are submitted to ISO 834 curve for 120min. Comparison of the test data with the expected increased axial load due to thermal restraint found in the literature, shows a potential danger for premature punching failure of flat slab-column connections exposed to fire.

Storey-based stability of unbraced steel frames at elevated temperature

The evaluation of the lateral stability of steel frames subject to elevated temperatures is different from that at ambient temperature. This is because the degradation of the Young's Modulus of steel associated with elevated temperature will lead to the loss of column lateral stiffness. In this study, the lateral stability of unbraced steel frames subjected to elevated temperature is investigated based on the concept of storey based buckling. First, to simulate a steel column exposed to the elevated temperature, an analytical model was proposed to examine the effects of axial loading, elevated temperature, and thermal boundary restraints on the lateral stiffness of steel columns in unbraced frames. Then, a method of evaluating the stability capacity of unbraced steel frames at elevated temperature is proposed. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the evaluation procedure of the proposed method and investigate the frame stability subjected to different scenarios of frame members exposed to the elevated temperature. The validity of the proposed method is verified by the numerical analysis with the use of finite element analysis.

Thermoelastic buckling of steel columns with load-dependent supports

The in-plane elastic buckling of a steel column with load-dependent supports under thermal loading is investigated. Two elastic rotational springs at the column ends are used to model the restraints which are provided by adjacent structural members or elastic foundations. The temperature is assumed to be linearly distributed across the section. Based on a nonlinear strain–displacement relationship, both the equilibrium and buckling equations are obtained by using the energy method. Then the limits for different buckling modes and the critical temperature of columns with different cases are studied. The results show that the proposed analytical solution can be used to predict the critical temperature for elastic buckling. The effect of thermal loading on the buckling of steel columns is significant. Furthermore, the thermal gradient plays a positive role in improving the stability of columns, and the effect of thermal gradients decreases while decreasing the modified slenderness ratios of columns. It can also be found that rotational restraints can significantly affect the column elastic buckling loads. Increasing the initial stiffness coefficient α or the stiffening rate β of thermal restraints will increase the critical temperature.

Fire resistance of reinforced concrete columns with elastically restrained thermal elongation

This paper outlines experimental research on the behaviour of reinforced concrete columns with restrained thermal elongation subjected to fire. The high temperatures developed in a fire lead to the thermal elongation of the structural elements, but other parts of the structure that remain at lower temperatures will impose restraints on that elongation, resulting in additional stresses on the heated members. It is therefore important to analyze the influence of the thermal restraint on the behaviour of reinforced concrete columns subjected to fire. Fire resistance tests were carried out on reinforced concrete columns with restrained thermal elongation to study this phenomenon. The influence of several parameters on the behaviour of the columns subjected to fire was tested, including the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, the slenderness of the column, the restraint level, the load level and the load eccentricity.

The behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs in fire

In this paper a robust model is presented based on the previous layer procedure developed by the author to also take into account the effects of concrete spalling on the behaviour of concrete slabs under fire conditions. In this study, a detailed analysis of a uniformly loaded reinforced concrete slab subject to different degrees of concrete spalling under a standard fire regime is first carried out. Further, a series of analysis of floor slabs with different degrees of concrete spalling is also performed on a generic reinforced concrete building. A total of 16 cases have been analysed using different degrees of spalling on the slabs, with different extents and positions of localised fire compartments. It is clear that adjacent cool structures provide considerable thermal restraint to the floor slabs within the fire compartment. And it is evident that the compressive membrane force within the slabs is a major player in reducing the impact of concrete spalling on the structural behaviour of floor slabs in fire.

Thermal buckling of rotationally restrained steel columns

The in-plane elastic buckling of a steel column under thermal loading is investigated. Two elastic rotational springs at the column ends are used to model the restraints which are provided by adjacent structural members or an elastic foundation. The temperature is assumed to be linearly distributed across the section. Based on a nonlinear strain-displacement relationship, both the equilibrium and buckling equations are obtained by using the energy method. Then the buckling of columns in three different thermal loading cases is studied. The results show that the proposed analytical solution can be used to predict the critical temperature for elastic buckling. The thermal gradient plays a positive role in improving the stability of columns. Furthermore, the effect of thermal gradients decreases while increasing the rotational restraint stiffness and decreasing the slenderness ratios of columns. It can also be found that rotational restraints can significantly affect the column elastic buckling loads. Increasing the rotational stiffness of thermal restraints will increase the critical temperature.

Cracking Tendency of Bridge Deck Concrete

Early-age cracking can adversely affect the behavior and durability of bridge deck concrete. Cracking of hardening concrete occurs when the induced tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete. The development of in-place stresses is affected by the shrinkage, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion, setting characteristics, restraint conditions, stress relaxation, and temperature history of the hardening concrete. Tensile strength increases as the hydration of the cementitious system progresses. Rigid cracking frame (RCF) testing techniques capture the combined effects of modulus of elasticity, creep and relaxation, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, autogenous shrinkage, and tensile strength on the cracking potential of a mixture in a specific application. This paper describes an experimental evaluation of the effect of supplementary cementing materials, water-to-cement ratio (w/c), and placement temperature conditions on the early-age cracking tendency of bridge deck concrete through the use of RCF testing techniques. Specimens were tested under temperature conditions that match those in an 8-in.-thick bridge deck to explore early-age cracking mechanisms. The laboratory testing program revealed that the placement temperature and curing temperature significantly affected the time to cracking of all the mixtures. Use of either fly ash or ground-granulated blast-furnace slag was effective in reducing the heat generation and rate of stiffness development in bridge deck concretes and thus in significantly reducing restraint stresses and delayed the occurrence of cracking at early ages. A decrease in w/c resulted in increased stresses, and it accelerated the occurrence of cracking at early ages.

Assessment of low-temperature embrittlement of asphalt binders using an acoustic emission approach

Thin films of paving grade asphalt binders moulded on granite substrates were stressed under rapid cooling and thermal restraint conditions at temperatures ranging from 15°C to -50°C. This temperature range encompasses typical pavement temperatures in colder climates. Differential thermal contraction between the granite substrates and asphalt binders induces progressively higher thermal stress levels in the binders as the temperature drops resulting in thermal crack formation, and the corresponding release of elastic energy in the form of transient stress waves. Using piezoelectric sensors (Digital Wave, Model B-1025), a four-channel acoustic emission (AE) system was used to record the acoustic emission activity during the binder/granite cooling process. It was observed that AE events of high energy clustered around a narrow temperature range. Assuming the cracking temperature (T CT ) to be the temperature at which the AE signal energy exceeds a pre-selected threshold energy level, this AE testing approach was found to be sensitive and repeatable for predicting cracking temperatures (T CT ) in four paving grade asphalt binders processed to two distinct ageing levels. The effect of binder type, ageing level and binder film thickness on cracking temperature is discussed. These AE-based T CT predictions showed strong correlations with predictions based on either the AASHTO TP1 or the MPIA protocols.