Theology Research Articles

A Hopeless Hodge-Podge of Theology?

Abstract Contemporary systematic theology is engaged in the ‘retrieval’ of insights from the Christian tradition. Accordingly, many theologians in the broadly Reformed tradition are seeking to recover, reclaim, and defend what they refer to as ‘classical theism’ as a stark alternative to what is sometimes referred to as ‘theistic personalism’ (and the ‘Social Trinitarianism’ that is said to accompany it). While broadly sympathetic to this enterprise, in this essay I employ the theology of Charles Hodge as a case study to argue that such tidy categorizations can be misleading and unhelpful, and I conclude that his theology raises challenges with respect to both historiography and theology.

Synchronic Contingency

Abstract Since the concept of synchronic contingency has received attention in historical theology in recent decades, I want to argue in this article that the concept has value for systematic theology as well. I explore the broader consistency of the concept with Reformed theology by relating it to a number of Reformed doctrines, and I check its consistency with Reformed theology by discussing the relevant criticisms and questions raised by Paul Helm.

Genocide Commemoration and Reconciliation in Rwanda from a Liturgical Ritual Perspective

Summary of PhD Thesis. This thesis was defended on March 14, 2023 at the Protestant Theological University Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Supervisors: prof. dr. Marcel Barnard (Protestant Theological University Amsterdam) and dr. Martin Hoondert (Tilburg University).

Self-Determination and Absolute Dependence: A Comparison of the Relationship between the “Self” and the “Other” and Its Dimension in The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch and Schleiermacher’s Christian Philosophy

As a classic of Zen Buddhism, The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, starting from the core concept of “self-nature and self-determination”, fully demonstrates the “Self” dimension and the “self-mastery” and “self-bearing” spiritual temperament of Master Huineng, who put forward the idea that “Buddhahood is realized within the essential-nature; do not seek for it outside yourself.” 佛向性中作，莫向身外求, and the spiritual temperament of “self-mastery” and “self-responsibility”. In contrast, Schleiermacher, as “the father of modern Protestant theology”, in his philosophical reflection on religion, grasped the notion of piety centered on “the feeling of absolute dependence” and enriched it with the substance of religious self-consciousness to establish and reveal the essence of religious faith and Christianity. This sharp contrast fully demonstrates the important difference of Buddhism and Christianity in dealing with the relationship between the “Self” and the “Other”. This essential difference reflects the fact that the Zen Buddhist classics represented by The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch are both rooted in the Buddhist tradition and based on the traditional Chinese philosophical theory of mind and nature, based on which is the faith model of seeking liberation from the nature of the “Self”. In contrast, The Christian faith, as typified by Schleiermacher’s Christian philosophy, attempts to establish a model of faith that seeks salvation through devout faith in the Absolute Supreme, and to take this point as the essence and basis of religious faith and Christian faith.

The Spirit, Sanctification, and Salvation: What Paul Has Joined, Let No Theologian Rend Asunder

Abstract This article demonstrates, primarily through a reading of key moments in Paul’s pastoral intervention in the life of his congregations in Galatia, three theses. First, Paul believes that our living justly before God—our embodying righteousness and holiness ever more fully in our dispositions and practices in the hope that we will indeed stand blameless before God—is God’s good purpose for us in Christ, who freed us from the penalty of sin, through the Spirit, who frees us from the power of sin. Second, Paul believes the Holy Spirit to play a significant role in God’s drama of setting things right with us, in us, and among us. Indeed, the Spirit merits equal billing with the Son in this drama, rather than being relegated to a merely supporting role. Third, Paul believes that experiencing the Holy Spirit’s work of what Protestant theologians typically call “sanctification”—this deliverance not only from sin’s penalty but also from sin’s power—is integral to experiencing the full salvation that is God’s purpose for us in Christ.

Adamic Christology and its Implications for Christian Soteriology

The subject of Christology is indispensable in Christianity because the entire Christian gospel centers on the person and works of Jesus Christ. One of the Christological models espoused in the New Testament is Adamic Christology with its focus on the striking analogy between Adam’s sin and Christ’s atoning sacrifice. While allusions of the Adam-Christ comparison appear elsewhere in the New Testament (Luke 3–4; Heb. 2:5–18), the most explicit articulation is found in Romans 5 and 1 Corinthians 15. Most of the existing literature on the subject focus more on exegetical issues and fail to provide adequate theological analysis on the Adam-Christ comparison. Current interest in theological implications of the Adam-Christ comparison has prompted this paper which explores Adamic Christology based on a theological reading of Romans 5:12-21 and other relevant texts on subject. The researcher used a literary research design comprising textual, theological and historical analyses of data collected from commentaries, articles, books, and dissertations/theses. The main thesis of the paper is that despite remarkable continuities between Adam and Christ on the basis of an ontological inclusivity of all humankind in their vicarious humanity, Christ exceeds Adam in all soteriological respects as the one who reverses the effect of Adam’s sin and its effect on humanity by bestowing salvific benefits on all who express belief in his saving person and works. The paper is an interdisciplinary study that contributes to the fields of Systematic theology (particularly on the issues of hamartiology and soteriology) and New Testament studies (especially Pauline studies).

Restoring the Eschatological Identity of the Church through Word and Sacrament as the Basis for Establishing Church Spirituality

The teaching or doctrine related to Christian eschatology is often considered unimportant or at least less important for various reasons: it is located in the last part of systematic theology, speculative, irrelevant, and often causes polemics in its interpretation. These reasons have led to the lack or even neglect of eschatology being taught and lived out in the liturgy and the life of the church. Therefore, through a literature study, the authors propose how the church today can recover its identity as an eschatological community as envisioned in the Scriptures. In particular, the author shows how the church can see and execute the proclamation of the Word and administer the sacrament of Holy Communion or the Eucharist eschatologically. The authors’ conviction is that an eschatological perspective and praxis in the church is an appropriate and healthy way to rebuild the spirituality of believers today.

God Talk: Christians Talking with Muslims in Buddhist Thailand

Religions use language in particular ways to attribute honour to humans and divine beings. This leads to complications in communication within the one Thai language but across social boundaries, specifically between Christianity and Islam. These two religious movements of Middle Eastern origin have established a presence in Thai society and made different adaptations to the ways of talking, particularly about people of status or divinity. Language use is often a marker of social group membership. This presents challenges when the religious communities seek to talk to each other. After outlining the different hierarchical strata of the Thai language, I examine how the Christian tradition has adopted it to speak about God, human kings, and Jesus as a special case, and the different approach of Islam. The focal question of the paper is: How do the religious traditions speak to each other in ways that generate understanding and cooperation rather than rejection and division?

Perichoresis and the Theology of Solidarity: A Foundation of Social Cohesion for Christian Millennials in Indonesia

Shifting patterns of social relations among millennials due to the use of social media in networks without a theological basis for social cohesion is a challenge for Christianity now and in the future. The nature and work of the Triune God as stated in the Bible should always be relevant in various challenges of the times. Research on the theological foundations that form the basis of social cohesion among millennials is still very limited. Social cohesion among millennials tends to be limited to the use of social media in cyberspace as is characteristic of millennials in Indonesia. An important question that must be answered by the Christian faith is what the theological basis for social cohesion is, especially among youth so that Christian millennials can maintain their faith properly in social cohesion among them. This article aims to demonstrate the relational Nature of the Trinity and His work as the basis for the solidarity of believers. The first part of this article will examine the essence of perichoresis in the Trinity and the theology of solidarity. The second part demonstrates the theology of God’s solidarity in the story of creation and for Israel in the Old Testament. The third part seeks is to analyze God's solidarity in the person and work of Jesus Christ. The fourth part demonstrates God’s solidarity among believers in the New Testament. The fifth part aims to analyze the theology of solidarity for especially millennials in Indonesia, This is followed by a conclusion which hopefully encapsulates the notions expressed.

Feminism against Progress

Feminism against Progress

Экзистенциальное и онтологическое измерение истины у С. Кьеркегора и Н. Бердяева

В статье анализируется понимание истины и возможности приобщения к ней в сочинениях датского философа С. Кьеркегора и русского мыслителя Н. Бердяева. Отталкиваясь от христианской парадигмы, оба автора подчёркивают субъективность Истины в том смысле, что приобщиться к ней (познать её или вступить в неё) человек может только лично, через собственные усилия, а не благодаря труду иных индивидуумов. Мыслители сходны в оценке возможности и конструктивности существования объективной истины. Истина неразрывно связана с Богом, однако если для датского автора главным является Его познание через категорию отчаяния, то у Н. Бердяева истина тождественна вступлению в божественную жизнь через дух. This was manifested to the greatest extent by Khomyakov in the religious sphere, where there is an organic and holistic unity of the thinker’s personality, his life and his thoughts. The Church of Christ has always remained the center of such unity for Khomyakov. The founder of Slavophilism lived in the Church, and was not just a formal member of it. Therefore, the Church was revealed to him from the inside in its spiritual richness and in the depth of its gracious mysteries. Experienced ecclesiology helped A. Khomyakov understand the nature of the Church and its unity, created not by administrative measures, but by the grace-filled life of the church community, as a result of which the life of this community is likened to the intra-Trinitarian Divine life: «As You, Father, are in Me and I am in You, so too are they they will be one in Us» (John 17, 21–22). The article draws attention to the fact that Khomyakov lacks a systematic ecclesiology. The religious philosopher generally disapproved of all kinds of theological systems, bearing in mind that many of them in his time were influenced by Western scholastic theology. Initially, this sometimes caused a critical attitude towards Khomyakov’s ecclesiological theology. However, such criticism, according to the remark of Archpriest Georgy Florovsky, was superficial. This article analyzes the understanding of truth and the possibility of belonging to it by the Danish philosopher S. Kierkegaard and the Russian thinker N. Berdyaev. Starting from the Christian paradigm, both authors emphasise the subjectivity of truth, in the sense that a person can join it (cognise it or enter into it) only personally, through his own efforts but not through the work other individuals. Thinkers are similar in assessing the possibility and constructiveness of the existence of objective truth. The truth is inextricably linked with God, but if for the Danish author the main thing is His knowledge through the catagory of despair, then for Berdyaev the truth is identical with entering into the divine life through the spirit.

The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven and the Differences in Concerns between Chinese and Western Thinking

The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven is a book recording the idea-exchange between the Catholic missionaries and Confucians in the Ming Dynasty. In understanding the book, it demands as the background the knowledge of the western history in thought behind Matteo Ricci’s mind-set, such as natural theology, Aristotle’s philosophy, and the Protestant theology. With this consideration in mind, we have traced Ricci’s appealing to the way of logical arguments in demonstrating the existence of God, which presents Catholic dogma as a philosophy. In this way, Ricci became ignored of the development of Chinese thought regarding the issues of arche, essence, and good-evil. Indeed, Chinese thinkers have engaged profoundly in these issues and proposed various solutions which invite thinkers to engage in sentimental appreciation. Ricci’s ignorance of these efforts results in blocking his understanding of Chinese thought at a deeper level. My analyses of the dialogue in the book show that this historical exchange of ideas stays only at a superficial phrase.

‘Unhiding’ women: Decolonising the mind of a female systematic theologian

This article will consider the parameters of systematic theological-‘knowledge’ today by examining the contribution of women’s theology to the field. This examination takes place in the context of debates about knowledge-construction within institutes of higher learning, and context of increased numbers of women theology students, as well as international emphasis on achieving gender equality, such as the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. With regard to curriculums of systematic theology, it is noted that a proverbial ‘canon within a canon’ exists with regard to including a diversity of voices in prescribed study material, specifically the contributions of women’s perspectives and women’s history as subject-content. This ‘data-gap’ is problematic with regard to epistemology and hermeneutics, which are instrumental in constructing a grammar of faith – that is, ‘church doctrine’ (which is traditionally the main component of systematic theology). This implies that a type of decolonisation, or unlearning is necessary. If a next generation of women systematic theologians are to be nurtured, approaches to teaching systematic theology and the methodology of systematic theology itself requires deconstruction.Contribution: This research aims to contribute to the fields of systematic theology, women’s studies, women’s theology and gender studies. It will also contribute to the fields of postcolonial epistemology and hermeneutics, as well as the study of the methodology of systematic theology.

Introduction of Special Issue “Phenomenology and Systematic Theology”

Introduction of Special Issue “Phenomenology and Systematic Theology”

The God of the cross is One: Engaging the theology of Bram van de Beek

The Dutch theologian, Bram van de Beek, has a radical Christological emphasis in his theology. In this world, we see the cross of Jesus. Essentially, God is One. The Father is the Father of the Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Christ. The Holy Spirit works primarily in the church and is not a general spirit or a spirit of goodwill. By participating in Jesus’ death and resurrection, the believer receives salvation. Van de Beek is of the opinion that understanding evolution is necessary and that evil in this world should also be regarded in the light of the cross. He is open to criticism in the light of his position on God and the creation regarding the view that death and evil are present from the beginning. One must, however, accept his Christological stance and his view that God is One, as highly acceptable.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This article is largely in the field of systematic theology, but mission studies is also relevant in interdisciplinary interaction.

Ritualized Affective Performances: Syriac Etiquette Guides and Systems Intelligence in Early Christian–Muslim Encounters

In 2009, Michael Penn published a transcription and English translation of two Syriac texts, To the Rulers of the World (ܠܘܬ ܪ̈ܝܫܢܐ ܕܥܠܡܐ) and Concerning the Entrance before a New Emir (ܕܡܥܠܬܐ ܨܝܕ ܐܡܝܪܐ ܚܕܬܐ). This essay proposes a new historiographical approach to these texts based on the concepts and theoretical apparatus of systems intelligence theory and affect theory. I show how these texts use key Islamic theological and cultural ideas that would affectively resonate with the Muslim authorities while remaining non-objectionable to the orthodoxy of the Assyrian Church of the East. Specifically, I argue that Christians sometimes sought to curry favor with Islamic authorities not so much through logical persuasion, but by creating a sense of affective coherence through attunement to the discursive and theological systems of Islam. Through this strategy, Christians perhaps hoped to gain some small measure of political and religious advantage, especially over and against other Christian jurisdictions, such as the Syrian Orthodox Church. I conclude by discussing what methodological prospects these approaches can offer to the subfield, particularly if combined with other theories that similarly remain underused.

Voorbeskikking, goed en kwaad, menslike verantwoordelikheid, en die sending

Predestination, good and evil, human responsibility, and mission. The background of this article is the challenge that Paul deals with in Romans, namely predestination and the reference to good and evil in theology. It seems as if God ordained good and evil. God is, however, holy and totally good. Sources by Augustine, Calvin, Weaver, Van de Beek and others highlight the questions in this regard. The central implications of the cross of Jesus, as well as the issue of human responsibility are extremely relevant in this regard. The objectives are to give a sound theological evaluation of the question of good and evil from the perspective of reformed theology in interaction with Scripture. Interaction with Scripture and theologians leads to a literature study and thereafter exegetical, hermeneutical and systematic theology issues are addressed. The results established that different positions are taken, but God is just and not the author of sin. This implicates a clear view on mission: reject sin and turn to God. The conclusions are: God is holy, but all mankind should reject evil and accept that God is the fountian of good. Mission is the act of the Triune God (missio Dei) in Jesus Christ, through the Holy Spirit, to lead sinners from darkness to God. The good in Jesus Christ, by his death on the cross and in his resurrection, overcame evil.Contribution: The article illuminates the issue of good and evil in a new way and offers insight into its significance for the mission. This has significance for the current missiological engagement.

Images as a Resource for Catholic Theology

The aim of this article is to demonstrate why Catholic theology should actively engage with artistic images and elucidate how they could serve as a valuable resource for theological knowledge and content. The discussion is articulated in three distinct steps. Firstly, drawing from theological-historical perspectives within Christian tradition, it is shown that certain images possess significant theological potential. There have been various forms of interaction between theology and the visual representation of faith. The second step discusses the gradual reduction of theological reflection towards rational and conceptual cognition. The author relies predominantly on inner-theological arguments to advocate for the necessity of expanding the intellectual and conceptual horizons of contemporary Catholic theology so as to include the aesthetic dimension. In the final, third part, these insights are substantiated through the examination of two examples from contemporary Catholic theology: the works of Alex Stock and Peter Hofmann, exploring how artistic images can enrich systematic theology by serving as a “locus theologicus”. In conclusion, the author asserts that images have the potential to expand and concretize abstracted topics within dogmatic theology. They can also facilitate the reintegration of fragmented theological disciplines and forge a more direct link between theology and the lived experience of faith.

Crucified Boy in Russian War Propaganda

The very first thing I heard when starting my studies in 1993 at the protestant Theological University in Kampen, the Netherlands, was about Theology after Auschwitz (Theologie nach Auschwitz): how it helped confront the legacy of violence and change mindsets in post-Nazi Germany. Coming from the Soviet Union, I immediately began to hope that a similar theological reflection on the Soviet past might start soon. As no such reflection emerged during the following twenty years, I gradually came to understand that I myself had to start a project to contribute to a systematical re-orientation in the post-Soviet countries. Thus, such had become my task and my calling. In 2016 I launched a project called ‘Theology after Gulag’, which name I have changed to ‘Theology after Gulag, Bucha, and beyond’ since Russia’s war in Ukraine.

“In Communion with God”: The Inculturation of the Christian Liturgical Theology of Giulio Aleni in His Explication of the Mass (Misa Jiyi)

Liturgical practice and its theological interpretation are not only very important to the Chinese inculturation of Catholicism in particular and Christianity in general but also of great significance in the establishment of an indigenized Christian faith and system of life. This paper will analyze the methodological approaches and historical inspirations for the inculturation of Christian liturgical theology through Giulio Aleni’s (1582–1649) Explication of the Mass (Misa Jiyi, 弥撒祭义), the first book to utilize Chinese cultural resources to systematically interpret the Mass (Eucharist). Continuing the general Jesuit accommodation initiated by Matteo Ricci, Aleni established an indigenized liturgical system of theology through intercultural learning, borrowing, and creative construction. Three of his contributions especially stand out. First, Aleni explained the significance of the Mass in terms of the Chinese philosophical–ethical concepts of “repaying the roots” (baoben, 报本) and “giving thanks” (gan’en, 感恩). Second, he elaborated on communion with the Trinitarian God in the Mass through Jesus Christ by drawing on the ancient Chinese teachings of repaying (chou, 酬), commemoration (shi, 示), and hope (wang, 望), which Aleni related to “giving thanks to the Father,” “commemorating Jesus,” and “invoking the Holy Spirit.” Finally, he provided a deep spiritual explanation of the Mass, using the traditional Confucian concepts of “self-restraint” (keji, 克己), “self-reflection” (fanji, 反己), and “spiritual meditation” (chouyi, 抽绎) to help believers understand the activities of repentance, commemoration, and prayer in the Mass. Overall, Aleni emphasized that the essence of the Mass was to achieve “communion with the heart of heavenly Lord” (xihe tianzhuzhixin, 翕合天主之心), which, as a pivot of faith, could be extended into daily life through its spiritual practice. Aleni, therefore, established a comprehensive system of “liturgy-spirituality-life” for Chinese Christians by indigenizing Christian liturgical theology through intercultural learning. His creative synthesis yielded a dynamic balance between Christian and Chinese traditions, absorbing Confucian resources to imaginatively enrich and expand the Christian tradition, while encouraging the creative transformation of the Christian tradition into the Chinese cultural community.