Terraced Land Research Articles

Effect of land terracing on soil physical properties across slope positions and profile depths in medium and high altitude regions of Rwanda

Although land terracing is promoted as a management practice for effective soil conservation in hilly areas, construction of terraces causes changes in soil properties. This study evaluated the effect of land terracing on some soil physical properties across slope positions and profile depths in medium and high altitudes of eastern and north-eastern Rwanda. Soil samples were collected from top, middle and bottom slopes of four year-old terraced and non-terraced lands. Results showed that soil textures were mainly sandy clay loams. At medium altitude, silt (19.6, 18.6%) and hydraulic conductivity (237.9, 129.8 mm h−1) were significantly ( p < 0.05) higher in terraced than non-terraced land, while clay (29.2, 27.8%) and total available water content (TAWC) (222.2, 201.7 mm m−1) were higher in non-terraced than terraced land. At the high altitude, hydraulic conductivity (194.3, 124.1 mm h−1) was higher in terraced than non-terraced land, while soil bulk density (1.42, 1.35 g cm−3) and TAWC (251.6, 235.3 mm m−1) were higher in non-terraced than terraced land. Terracing increased silt content and hydraulic conductivity, and slightly decreased clay and water retention capacity. These changes are important in soil water and fertility management, and therefore need to be considered when using terraced lands.

Pedo-Transfer Functions for Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Cultivated Soils in the Mid Hills of Sikkim

In this study, pedotransfer functions (PTFs) are developed for saturated hydraulic conductivity (K s ) using multiple linear regression (MLR) technique for the cultivated terraced land of East Sikkim district, North East India. Soil samples were collected for 29 stations and K s values were measured using the constant head permeameter. The various combinations of measured soil properties, including percentage of sand, silt, clay, bulk density (BD), particle density (PD), porosity, organic carbon (OC) content were used for the development of the models. The K s value varied from 0.97 to 29.38 cm/day and the mean value was 8.04 cm/day in the study area. The correlation between predicted and measured values was found to be better for the combination, including five input variables. The results indicated a negative correlation of K s with silt, clay and BD, whereas sand, PD, OC and porosity had a positive correlation. The recommended MLR model 5 consisting of five input variables for the prediction of K s in the study area had R 2 values of 0.81 and 0.83 during model development and model validation, and showed goodness-of-fit with the observed K s value. The PTFs developed in this study would be helpful for the planning and design of water resources structures in the hilly state of Sikkim.

Land degradation and management of red beds in China: Two case studies

Red beds cover approximately 9.5% of China, and are home to approximately 144 million people. In total, 83% of these lands are distributed in humid regions making it an important part of research on red bed soil erosion in China in these areas. This paper presents the main types of land degradation in red bed landscapes and the status of current soil erosion in a typical red bed basin, the Nanxiong Basin located in the north of Guangdong Province, China, and establishes the connection between management strategies and regional economic development in humid red bed regions of China. The soil erosive modulus was calculated in the Nanxiong Basin by using RUSLE (The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation). The results of overlapping analyses demonstrated that appropriate measures, such as the Return Farmland to Forests initiative, should be taken at the junction of central red bed areas and mountainous areas in order to mitigate current soil erosion. Two examples are presented to demonstrate this: the tourism development in Mt. Danxiashan, a noted scenic mountainous area near Nanxiong Basin, and the land degradation mitigation in the Nanxiong Basin. Both examples promote local economic growth while simultaneously protecting the environment. A ‘stakeholder’ strategy is pursued at Mt. Danxiashan, which can help residents to understand their positive effects on the environment as well as increase their income. The second example, in Nanxiong City, showcases how local farmers became stakeholders by implementing contract responsibility and self-support systems for economic forests and terraced land in the 1980s.

Variations in Soil Chemical Properties, Bacteria and Fungi Populations Along Slope Positions and Profile Depths in Terraced and Non-terraced Lands of Rwanda highlands

The objective of the current study was to evaluate effect of terracing on soil chemical and biological properties in the Rwanda highlands. The study was done in March 2017. Composite soil samples were collected from the top, middle and bottom slopes of four-year-terraced and non-terraced lands, in three profile depths, in medium and high altitudes. Results showed that, levels of organic carbon (1.3, 1.04%) were significantly (p less than 0.05) higher in non-terraced than terraced land, and populations of bacteria (3.59, 2.61 CFU*106g-1) and fungi (2.51, 1.57 CFU*104g-1) were significantly higher in terraced than non-terraced land, in the medium altitude, with no significant differences observed in the high altitude. Soil pH, total N, available P, CEC, exchangeable K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ levels in terraced and non-terraced lands were not significantly different in both altitudes. Thus, soil characteristics and fertility of the study areas showed slight changes after four years of terracing.

Soil nutrients of different land-use types and topographic positions in the water-wind erosion crisscross region of China's Loess Plateau

The Grain-for-Green program was implemented in China in 1999 to reduce soil erosion, increase biodiversity, conserve natural resources and improve the natural environment by modifying patterns of land use. The located field experiment about the influence of different land-use types (LUTs) on nutrient contents and changes in the soil profile or the degree of influence over time was conducted for many years in Liudaogou watershed. The contents of soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), available P (AP) and two inorganic N forms, ammonium-N (AN) and nitrate-N (NN), were determined in 0–200 cm soil profiles in five terraced and three sloped LUTs. The terraced LUTs were bare land (BAT), farmland (FAT), abandoned land (ABT), forage land (FOT, with alfalfa) and shrubland (SHT, with the peashrub Caragana korshinskii), and the sloped LUTs were farmland (FAS), abandoned land (ABS) and forage land (FOS). All of these LUTs were converted from traditional farmland except for FAT and FAS and they are carefully maintained for the last 50 years. SOM and TN contents were significantly higher after conversion from farmland to shrubland or grassland (15.6–34.9%) and decreased (51.5–77.1% for SOM in 0–40 cm, 49.7–72.1% for TN in 0–60 cm) with depth for all LUTs. TP and AN contents throughout the profiles were not significantly affected by land use, but NN was leached and accumulated in farmland only. AP content was highest throughout the profile in ABS when TP and AP contents were higher in sloped land than terraced land. SOM, TN and AN contents did not differ significantly for the same land-use patterns in the two topographies. SOM and TN contents in the surface soil increased with the length of recovery. Our observations demonstrated that the Grain-for-Green program has improved the nutrient contents and fertility of the soil and has increased SOM and TN stocks over time and that these effects were not limited to the topsoil. Abandoned land may be the optimal choice for nutrient sequestration in terraced and sloped land. Shrubland and artificial grassland are also recommended for increasing soil nutrient content in the area.

Effects of tillage and rice residue management practices on lentil root architecture, productivity and soil properties in India’s Lower Himalayas

Large areas in North Eastern Region (NER) of India remain fallow (approx. 2.50 million hectare) after the rainy season (June-October) rice (Oryza sativa L.) could be cultivated in succession with winter pulses like lentil (Lens esculentum L.) on residual soil moisture. Growing short-duration lentil cultivars under no-till (NT) and mulch rice may limit the pulse drought stress. A 2-year study (2011–2013) was conducted in terraced land of Meghalaya, India (950 m ASL), involving rice-lentil cropping system to evaluate on soil and legume parameters short-term impacts of three tillage management prior lentil crop i.e. no tillage (NT), minimum tillage (MT), conventional tillage (CT) and four residue management i.e. residue removal (RM), 20 cm standing rice stubble (20SS), 40 cm standing rice stubble (40SS) and mulch @ 5 Mg ha−1] and two lentil plant types [early and medium duration varieties: DPL 62 (Sheri) and DPL 15 (Priya), respectively]. Soil moisture content, water holding capacity and infiltration rate (IR) were higher in soil under mulch followed by 40 SS compared to 20SS and RM. The IR was significantly higher at lentil harvest for both in soil under NT in rice followed by NT in lentil (NT-NT) as compared to MT in rice followed by NT in lentil (MT-NT), and CT in rice followed by NT in lentil (CT-NT). The soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration, soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) and dehydrogenase activities (DHA) were significantly higher in 0–15 cm soil depth under NT-NT and MT-NT as compared to CT-NT. On an average, significantly higher SOC (17.3 g kg−1), DHA (2.32 μg g−1 hr−1) and SMBC (79.5 μg g−1 dry soil) in 0–15 cm soil layer at harvest of lentil were obtained under mulch followed by 40 SS as compared to RM. Lentil leaves chlorophyll and relative water contents were significantly higher under mulch followed by that under 40SS than 20SS and RM. Total root length, surface area and root volume increased significantly under mulch compared with those under RM. Lentil grown with mulch and 40SS recorded significantly higher seeds per pod, pods per plant, 1000 seed weight and lentil seed yield than RM and 20SS. Lentil seed yield recorded under mulch was 66.6 and 36.5% higher than that under RM. We concluded that reduced tillage (MT/NT) and residue retention through mulch or 40SS could be adopted to reduce drought stress lentil constraints in rice successions while physical improving soil properties.

Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil and Rice Yield

Effect of integrated nutrient management on physico-chemical properties of rice-grown on terraced land was studied in a two-year field experiment. There were twenty treatments consisting of different combinations of locally-available organic nutrient sources (FYM, vermicompost and goat manure), mineral fertilizers and lime. The different treatment combinations showed significant effect on yield of upland rice and soil properties viz. water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, infiltration rate. Infiltration rate was highest in treatment comprising of 75% NPK +2.5 t ha-1 goat manure + lime and 75% NPK + 5t ha-1 FYM while water holding capacity was highest in 75%NPK+2.5 t ha-1 goat manure + lime. Application of 75% NPK + 5 t ha-1 FYM had maximum hydraulic conductivity (2.8 cm hr-1). In general soil pH was higher in lime-amended soils. Treatment 75% NPK+ 5 t ha-1 FYM + lime produced highest grain yield (50.2 q ha-1) followed by 50% NPK+5 t ha-1 FYM + lime (43.9 q ha-1),and control had lowest yield (30.3 q ha-1).

Bioconversion of agricultural waste and its efficient utilization in the hilly ecosystem of Northeast India

PurposeA suitable strategy for bioconversion of agricultural waste into quality organic manure and its efficient utilization was assessed in the hilly ecosystem of Northeast India.MethodsPits were dug in terrace lands and filled with chopped plant biomass (rice straw, maize stover and mixed weed biomass) with alternate layers of cow dung at 3:2 ratio. The treatment consisting of control (plant biomass + cow dung), plant biomass + cow dung + earthworm (Eisenia fetida) (with or without poly lining in the pit) and plant biomass + cow dung + earthworm + cellulose-degrading microorganism (Pseudomonas sp.) (with or without poly lining in the pit) was used for the bioconversion process.ResultsCombined inoculation of E. fetida and Pseudomonas sp. with poly lining in the pit significantly enhanced compost recovery (29.8%), cellulase activity (55.2%) and the C:N ratio (1.9%) as compared to control. Significant achievement in yield components and nutrient status in soil was observed after combined application of compost with 50% recommended dose of fertilizer.ConclusionThe current investigation established dual inoculation effect of E. fetida and Pseudomonas sp. with poly lining in the pit as a suitable technology for faster decomposition and effective bioconversion of agricultural waste into quality organic manure. A treatment imposed with such organic manure will be supportive in enhancing crop production as well as improving soil health.

Reconstructing past terraced agrarian landscapes in the Ebro valley: The deserted village of Torrentejo in the Basque Country, Spain

AbstractThe historical agrarian landscape features of the deserted medieval village of Torrentejo (Ebro Valley, southern Basque Country, Rioja Alavesa region) are presented here. This study relies on analyses of agricultural lands on terraces and, secondarily, of domestic occupation, funerary spaces, and of a medieval church. An archaeological excavation was carried out around the church, covering 800 m2, and exposing more than 2 m of archaeological deposits. The detailed study of 6 ha of terraced land made use of oral and written sources, historical aerial photos, and fieldwalking survey and mapping of each feature and retaining wall. Trial trenches were studied by means of soil analyses and micromorphology. The integration of buried and surface evidence provided a comprehensive sequence of phases of terrace construction and allowed us to document the progressive expansion of vineyard production. Three main phases within the last 1,300 years were identified and dated using radiocarbon. This paper examines the correlations between terrace fields, landscape history, settlement changes, and agrarian practices.

Terraced Landscapes and Hydrogeological Risk. Effects of Land Abandonment in Cinque Terre (Italy) during Severe Rainfall Events

During 25 October 2011, an extremely intense rainfall event occurred in Eastern Liguria and Northern Tuscany. Severe damages were registered in the Monterosso and Vernazza basins, located in the famous area of Cinque Terre, which have been affected by hundreds of landslides, mud flows, and erosions. The main feature of the Cinque Terre landscape is the presence of terraced cultivations on steep slopes facing the sea. The area represents a remarkable cultural landscape, is a National Park, and is included in the World Heritage List of the UNESCO. This work aims to analyze the effect of abandoned terraced land on hydrogeological risks and in landslide prevention, by comparing what happened in Cinque Terre to other experiences presented in scientific literature. The cessation of maintenance of dry stone terraces due to the crisis of traditional agriculture was identified as the main cause of failure during the heavy rainfall event. However, we found some contrasting and, in some cases, unexpected results in the literature regarding the effects of the vegetation that develops on abandoned terraces. This paper compares different results in order to better understand what the future of terraced landscapes is and which are the best management strategies for such complex and fragile territories. In particular, where they represent a cultural heritage and a resource for the rural economy.

Factors that influence soil total phosphorus sources on dam fields that are part of ecological construction programs on the Loess Plateau, China

Terraces and check-dam construction are widely used to control soil and water on the Loess Plateau, China. However, it is not known whether dam fields behave as soil phosphorus sources or sinks. This study quantitatively assessed the effects of check-dam and terrace construction on soil total phosphorus (STP). It also investigated the factors that influenced STP. A total of 1010 soil samples (five land uses and five soil depths) were collected in a small watershed on the Loess Plateau. The probability density function of the Weibull distribution was used to analyze the STP sources on the dam field land. The results showed that the highest STP concentration was recorded in the dam field land. Furthermore, the STP concentration mean values for the five land-use types decreased in the following order: dam field > terraced land > grassland > forestland > sloping cropland. The highest clay content value was also recorded in the dam field land. Soil total phosphorus was significantly and positively correlated to soil organic carbon (SOC), but negatively correlated to sand content (P < 0.01) in all areas. Across the entire soil profile down to 60 cm depth, the STP levels for the five land-uses were dam field, 2.78 kg/m2; terrace, 2.86 kg/m2; grassland, 2.98 kg/m2; forestland, 2.84 kg/m2; and sloping cropland, 2.83 kg/m2. The percentage contributions made by the four land use types to the soil total phosphorus deposited in the dam field were 50% (sloping cropland), 33% (grassland) and 17% (forestland). Therefore, check dam constructions behave as a sink for soil phosphorus on the Loess Plateau, China.

Soil particle size distribution characteristics of different land-use types in the Funiu mountainous region

Soil particle composition is one of the main physical properties of soil that affects soil fertility, and the fractal dimension of soil particle size distribution (PSD) can be used to quantitatively evaluate the particle composition of different soils. The single fractal dimension of soil PSD can quantitatively characterize the roughness of the soil particle, and the multifractal dimension of soil PSD can quantitatively characterize the inhomogeneous property of soil particle composition. Sloping farmland is widely distributed in hilly areas of China that are subject to the most serious soil erosion, and the loss of soil will lead to changes in soil particle composition and soil physical properties. Previous studies have not been used to evaluate the heterogeneity of soil PSD between sloping farmland and other land use types by the multifractal method. In order to quantitatively assess the differences in soil properties between the slope land and other types of land use, this paper takes four types of land use (sloping farmland, shrub-grass sloping land, terraced farmland, and oak forestland) in the warm-temperate granite mountainous areas in eastern central China as research objects. A laser particle size analyzer and soil fractal model were applied to compare the soil PSD of different land-use types and their corresponding single fractal dimension (Dv) and generalized fractal dimension (Dq). The results showed that there were clear differences between the DV and Dq of soil PSD in different land-use types. The Dv of the soil PSD increased as follows: sloping farmland < level terraced land < shrub-grass sloping land < oak forestland, indicating that the soil particle composition coarseness was highest in sloping farmland and lowest in the oak forestland. The sequence of characteristic parameters of Dq (capacity dimension, D0; information dimension, D1; and correlation dimension D2) was as follows: sloping farmland < level terraced land < shrub-grass sloping land < oak forestland, indicating that the inhomogeneity of soil particle composition was the highest in sloping farmland, and lowest in oak forestland. The Dv, D0, D1, and D2 of the soil PSD were significantly positively correlated to the content of clay and silt particles, and were significantly and negatively correlated to the content of sand particles, indicating that the fewer clay particles and silt in the soil or the higher the proportion of sand, the higher the coarseness and the inhomogeneity of soil particle composition. This study showed that the soil coarseness and the inhomogeneity of the sloping farmland soil particle composition are significantly greater than those of other land-use types. The mass loss of the soil fine particles (clay and silt particles) is an important cause of coarsening and increased inhomogeneity of the sloping farmland. This study provides a soil fractal index for quantitative assessment of soil texture and the degradation of soil properties in landscapes prone to soil erosion such as sloping farmland.

Rehabilitation and Renewal of Mediterranean Structures. The Utopic Landscape of Algarve

One of the remarkable features of Mediterranean landscapes is the terraced land frame, usually supported by dry stone walling. The terraces, property division walls, pathways and traditional paths design a network compartmentalization that defines landscape identity. The informational content, aesthetic quality, ecological and cultural values allowed by this articulated construction are particularly important at coastal zones with intense human impact. On the Algarve, the hills displayed by such structures form the background scenario of an urban-touristic system. This paper aims to interrelate ecological, aesthetic, symbolic, socio-economic and political aspects that influence the spatial distribution and image of the terraces. The values that local people may assign to their landscapes will determine the acknowledgement of the structural elements under analysis, but the role of tourists must be seriously take into account. Beyond nostalgic solutions, one must prospect the future of the dry stone walling structure into the diversity of possible solutions for a sustainable landscape development, which enhances the living part of an inseparable unit that includes the densest urbanized areas with less ecological functions. We call such unit the urban-touristic region of Algarve and, therefore, we try to use landscape as an instrument of knowledge and acknowledgement of regional spaces.

Worrying about ‘Vertical Landscapes’: Terraced Olive Groves and Ecosystem Services in Marginal Land in Central Italy

Terraced Mediterranean areas are distinctive man-made landscapes with historical and cultural relevance. Terraced land abandonment driven by physical and economic constraints had important ecological consequences. This study focuses on a marginal agricultural district in southern Latium, central Italy, where terracing dated back to the Roman period and olive groves are the main agricultural use. A diachronic assessment of land-use transformations was carried out to identify landscape dynamics and drivers of change around terraced land. Terraced landscape systems (TLS), derived from spatial aggregation of neighboring terraced patches, have been analyzed for landscape transformations considering slope as the main stratification variable. Structural and functional characteristics of TLS were analyzed using a landscape ecology approach. Soil bio-chemical indicators were finally assessed to study the impact of terraced olive agro-ecosystems on soil-related ecosystems services. The empirical findings outlined that TLS in central Italy are sensitive to urbanization and land abandonment. Cultivated terraces prevailed up to gentle-medium slope land, uncultivated and wooded areas dominated terraces on steep slopes. In this context, poly-cultural olive groves proved to be a cropping system particularly resilient to global change, irrespective of land slope. Terraced systems and extensive poly-cultural olive groves play a role in preserving ecosystem integrity, landscape quality, soil functionality and, therefore, environmental sustainability.

Spatial patterns of sediment connectivity in terraced lands: Anthropogenic controls of catchment sensitivity

AbstractIn recent decades, the dynamics of global change in developed countries has led to significant alterations in the hydrological and sediment dynamics of terraced land. Agricultural terraces were built to control overland flow and prevent erosion, acting as buffers and barriers throughout the sediment cascading system. Their abandonment and degradation increase the sensitivity of the catchment, promoting the collapse of dry‐stone walls and the reworking of stored sediment. In this study, a geomorphometric index of connectivity—derived from high‐resolution LiDAR data (0.9 pt/m, RMSE &lt; 0.2 m)—analysed the spatial patterns of structural connectivity in a small Mediterranean catchment (4.8 km2) characterized by a massive presence of terraces (37% of the surface area). The morphological characteristics of these anthropogenic features generated a dual effect: (a) general disconnectivity between different compartments of the catchment and (b) concentration of water and sediment flows along preferential pathways promoted by a cascade effect of collapse within the terraced areas. The fieldwork found that 73% of wall collapses were located on these pathways that showed high index of connectivity values (&gt;Q8). This spatial matching was related to feedback dynamics between structural and functional connectivity, in which the failure of walls increases the concentration of runoff, which in turn accelerates the hydraulic processes causing their collapse. Identifying the most connected pathways within the most vulnerable structures in an integrated analysis could be a cost‐effective strategy for establishing priority areas for the management of terraced lands.

Impacts of terrain attributes and human activities on soil texture class variations in hilly areas, south-west China.

Knowledge of soil texture variations is critical for agricultural and engineering applications because texture influences many other soil properties. This study used random forest method to evaluate the effects of human activities and topographic parameters on the spatial variability of soil texture in hilly areas where soil parent material was uniform. The study site covers 252km2 and is located in the Upper Yangtze River Basin of south-west China. A total of 3636 samples were collected from the cultivated soils at a depth of 20cm of dryland (sloping field and terraced land) landscape. The soil texture class for each sample was estimated by experienced soil scientists in the field. Two soil texture classes (loam and clay) were observed in the watershed. Eleven terrain parameters were derived from a digital elevation model with a resolution of 30m. Compared with loamy soils, clayey soils were mostly observed in the areas with lower elevation and gentle slopes. The outcome of random forest indicated that human activities and elevation had strong effects on soil texture class variations across the study site. Further results showed that the relative importance of terrain parameters to soil texture class variations varied with dryland landscape. Topographic wetness index and elevation were the most important variables for sloping field and terraced land landscapes, respectively.

Effect of twelve years integrated nutrient management practices on soil fertility and performance of upland rice in terraced land

A long-term field experiment was started in 2001 on newly constructed bench terraces at the Department of Soil and Water Conservation in the experimental farm of School of Agricultural Science and Rural Development (SASRD), Nagaland University (NU), Medziphema, Nagaland to study the long term effects of various nutrients management practices on performance of upland rice and fertility of terraced land under rainfed condition. Twelve treatments involving N, P and K (NPK) fertilizers, farmyard manure (FYM), poultry litter, forest litter, Azospirillum and Zn either alone or in combinations were applied continuously for twelve years to evaluate the effect of integrated nutrient management practices on available N, P and K content and performance of upland rice in a terraced land. The available N and K content increased significantly in all the treatments whereas, available P content increased significantly in all the treatments except Forest litter burned+ ½ FYM over control. The highest accumulation of available N, P and K was found in NPK+ Poultry litter, NPK+ FYM and ½N+ PK+ ½N Forest litter treatments, respectively. The rate of build up of available N, P and K in different nutrient management practices varied from 3.57 to 22.5, 0.19 to 1.09 and 3.35 to 13.3 kg ha -1 yr -1 , respectively. Maximum plant height was recorded in NPK+ FYM+ Zn treatment. The number of productive tillers per plant was also highest in NPK+ FYM+ Zn treatment. The highest straw yield was recorded in NPK+ FYM followed by NPK+ Poultry litter treatment. The highest grain yield was recorded in NPK+ FYM+ Zn followed by NPK+ Poultry litter treatment. Compared with NPK, grain yield in NPK+ FYM+ Zn, NPK+ Poultry litter and NPK+ FYM treatments increased significantly and were 38.1, 34.43 and 32.6 per cent higher, respectively. Among different nutrient management practices, NPK+ FYM+ Zn proved to be the best practices followed by NPK+ Poultry litter and can suitably be recommended for use not only to build up available N, P and K levels but also to produce higher grain yield in terraced land under upland rice cultivation.

ʿAin Joweizeh: An Iron Age Royal Rock-Cut Spring System in the Naḥal Refa'im Valley, near Jerusalem

ʿAin Joweizeh is the longest rock-cut subterranean spring system in Israel. It is located in the central section of the Nahal Refa'im Valley, in the heart of an area abundant with springs and cultivable terraced land that served as part of Jerusalem's agricultural hinterland for extended periods of time, starting in the Middle Bronze Age. The authors describe the different components of the spring system and discuss related technological aspects. In the framework of a survey of the site an architectural element bearing a Proto-Aeolic motif was ‘rediscovered’. A comparative study of the item's characteristics and its location suggest that ʿAin Joweizeh served as a royal Judahite water system, established sometime during the Iron IIB–C. The finds shed light on the phenomenon of spring flow tunnels in the Jerusalem Hills.

Temporal persistence and stability of soil water storage after rainfall on terrace land

The “Grain for Green” Project on the Loess Plateau of China has converted a large area of cultivated slope farmland to terraces to reduce soil erosion and improve the ecological environment. The area of terraced land on the Loess Plateau was 32,600 km2 in 2010. Knowledge of the behavior of soil water storage (SWS) and its spatiotemporal distribution provides essential information concerning hydrological and ecological processes. This study aimed to analyze the temporal stability of SWS after rainfall for different time periods on terraces planted with jujube trees (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). The SWS of 21 locations was obtained from July 19 to September 3 in 2014 and from August 01 to August 31 in 2015. Relative difference analysis and the nonparametric Spearman rank correlation test were used to check the temporal stability of SWS. The SWS on terraces was normally distributed and demonstrated moderate spatial variability. The SWS at three soil depths all showed strong temporal stability with stability in the order of 0–0.6 < 0–1.0 < 0–1.6 m. Rainfall significantly affected the temporal stability of SWS in the depth of 0–0.6 m. The number of representative locations of SWS was not constant. The best representative locations were not identical for different soil depths; however, a common representative location did exist for the different depths and periods. Moreover, the mean SWS generally increased from the upper to lower slope. The temporal stability of SWS was not significantly affected by rainfall but was significantly negatively correlated with sand content. The total root length and soil organic carbon content did not show any obvious correlations with mean SWS. It was feasible to use the representative locations of SWS to represent the mean SWS over a period of time. However, the cumulative absolute error increased with cumulative days. In conclusion, SWS in the deeper soil depths indicated greater temporal stability than that in shallow soil depth during wet period. The best representative locations for SWS were depth and time dependent.

담양하천습지의 식생유형과 분포양상

담양하천습지는 영산강 본류에 위치하는 하천습지로서 2004년 습지보호지역으로 지정되었다. 이번 연구에서는 총 30개의 식생자료가 획득되었으며, 총 101종(미동정종 1종)을 포함하는 22개의 식생유형이 구분되었다. 현존식생도는 6개의 범례(하천림, 대상식생, 터주식생, 연안대식생, 습생초원, 개방수역)로 구분되었으며, 습지식생의 면적은 약 35%(<TEX>$386,841.86m^2$</TEX>)를 차지하였다. 본 연구 결과 담양하천습지에 분포하는 식물사회는 보호지역 상단에 설치된 물막이보와 상부 유역에 운영 중인 담양댐 등으로 인해 급격한 수환경 변화로 형성된 것으로 유추되었다. 고수부지는 최근까지 경작이 진행되었으나 보호지역 지정 이후 방치됨으로써 현재와 같은 하천변 휴경작지의 식생경관이 형성되었다. 조사지역 내 환경부 지정생태계 교란 야생식물인 털물참피가 우점하는 군락이 넓게 발달하고 있으며, 국내 미기재된 새로운 귀화식물군락인 앵무새깃군락이 관찰되었다. 이들 식물군락들은 나도겨풀군락이 발달하는 환경과 중복되어 그 밖의 유사한 생태적 지위를 가지는 고유식물군락의 서식처를 점유하게 될 것이다. 담양하천습지의 다양한 식물사회들은 인공 시설물 등에 의한 하천환경 변화 및 교란, 훼손에 기인한 것으로 이해된다. Damyang riverine wetland was designated as a wetland protected area in 2004; that is located in the Yeongsan river mainstream. Total 30 phytosociological releves at field studies were classified with 22 vegetation types including of 101 species (unidentified 1 species). Legends of actual vegetation map were separated by 6 types; riparian forest, substitute vegetation, synanthropic vegetation, wet meadow vegetation, open water, an area of wetland vegetation is about 35 % (<TEX>$386,841.86m^2$</TEX>). Results of this study area as follows. The plant society of Damyang riverine wetland was conjectured that it was formed by rapidly water environment change with installed weir on the upstream of protected area and operating of Damyang dam on top of the basin. Until recently, the terrace land on the river was used to cultivate, but that would be formed fallow vegetation scenery on riverfront caused by no cultivation after designated protected area. Paspalum distichum var. indutum community designated as invasive alien plant by Korea Ministry of Environment was widely developed and Myriophyllum spicatumunrecorded in the country as newly alien species was discovered in the study zone. The plants as lapped over developing environment for Leersia japonica must be occupied habitat of native plant species having similar niche. The various plant society in Damyang riverine wetland should be developed because of environmental changes, disturbances and damages of stream.