Termite Mounds Research Articles

Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind.

Each of us made the remarkable journey from mere matter to mind: starting life as a quiescent oocyte ("just chemistry and physics"), and slowly, gradually, becoming an adult human with complex metacognitive processes, hopes, and dreams. In addition, even though we feel ourselves to be a unified, single Self, distinct from the emergent dynamics of termite mounds and other swarms, the reality is that all intelligence is collective intelligence: each of us consists of a huge number of cells working together to generate a coherent cognitive being with goals, preferences, and memories that belong to the whole and not to its parts. Basal cognition is the quest to understand how Mind scales-how large numbers of competent subunits can work together to become intelligences that expand the scale of their possible goals. Crucially, the remarkable trick of turning homeostatic, cell-level physiological competencies into large-scale behavioral intelligences is not limited to the electrical dynamics of the brain. Evolution was using bioelectric signaling long before neurons and muscles appeared, to solve the problem of creating and repairing complex bodies. In this Perspective, I review the deep symmetry between the intelligence of developmental morphogenesis and that of classical behavior. I describe the highly conserved mechanisms that enable the collective intelligence of cells to implement regulative embryogenesis, regeneration, and cancer suppression. I sketch the story of an evolutionary pivot that repurposed the algorithms and cellular machinery that enable navigation of morphospace into the behavioral navigation of the 3D world which we so readily recognize as intelligence. Understanding the bioelectric dynamics that underlie construction of complex bodies and brains provides an essential path to understanding the natural evolution, and bioengineered design, of diverse intelligences within and beyond the phylogenetic history of Earth.

Morphological and elemental analysis of termite mound and ant nest in agriculturally prominent area

Soil management is important for the farmers to improve the crop yield. In nature some invertebrates serve as bioindicators and biomonitors. Biogenic structure built by insects is important for controlling soil erosion and water reserves. Ants and termites nest architecture along with the elemental analysis was studied to evaluate soil health and possible threats imposed by heavy metals in the area. The soil samples were collected and analyzed for various parameters. Systematic study of porosity, composition, and nutritional values of soil in ant nest and termite mound were done. The Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrophotometer studies showed that ant nest and termite mound samples were found to contain elements viz., zinc, selenium, lead, cadmium, nickel drought and chromium. Based on Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Analysis of X-rays, the size of soil samples collected from ant nest and termite were found to be 27.77 nm and 25.56 nm, respectively. The corrosion resistant zirconium and titanium metals were detected in 0.68 and 0.39% concentration in ant nest and termite mound samples, respectively, representing the insect house as a possible source of rich metals. The ant nest and termite mound materials contain quartz, microcline, kaolinite, and clay minerals. Ant nests and termite mounds can thus be used as hydrological indicators to address the problems of soil erosion.

ADOBE WITH TERMITE MOUND SOIL FOR SUSTAINABLE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION IN GAMBELLA

The Gambella community in Ethiopia uses their indigenous knowledge of mixing termite mounds soil with locally available straws to build their mud houses. Mud houses constructed with termite mounds are comparatively stronger than those prepared with other soils, but they have severe durability issues due to shrinkage cracks that necessitate regular maintenance which is not affordable by many. This research paper presents technology intervention to resolve these issues faced by the community by introducing an alternative method of house construction called adobe. As part of this research 144 blocks of adobes were cast by using locally available materials and their performance was evaluated by conducting several strength and durability tests. The experimental results revealed that adobe prepared with termite mounds soil, 1.5% straws, and 2.5% of binder provides excellent strength and durability. The compressive strength was measured to be 2.6 MPa. Enhanced durability in terms of reduced shrinkage (17%), a low initial rate of absorption (0.29), and water absorption (0.26) were found in the adobe blocks. This indicates adobe is certainly the best solution to the existing houses' durability issues and a best-class sustainable solution for the construction of houses in Gambella, Ethiopia. Keywords: Adobe, Mud Houses, Compressive strength, Durability, Straw, Chikka Bets

Termite constructions as patches of soil fertility in Cambodian paddy fields

In Cambodia, termite mounds are commonly used by farmers as amendments to increase the fertility of their paddy fields. However, despite their utilization, their chemical and physical properties have not been described yet. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the chemical and physical properties of two termite constructions commonly found in paddy fields: (a) termitaria built and occupied by the fungus-growing termite Macrotermes gilvus and (b) lenticular mounds that are initially built by termites but host a large diversity of other invertebrates and plants. This study shows that these biogenic structures have very specific properties. Termitaria were characterized by higher clay, phosphorus and electrical conductivity than the surrounding soil. However, their effect on carbon dynamics was limited to a modification of the interactions between soil organic matter and minerals and to the presence of carbonates. At the same time, lenticular mounds appeared as patches of nutrients in paddy fields because they were always enriched in carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in comparison with the surrounding cultivated soil. Lenticular mounds were also enriched in clay, although this effect was only measured when the sand content in the surrounding environment was >60%. Together with these changes, lenticular mounds were characterized by a lower bulk density, higher saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), and higher water holding capacity. In conclusion, this study shows that termite constructions can be considered fertility and biogeochemical hotspots in paddy fields, thus explaining their use by farmers for improving the fertility of their lands.

Structural performance evaluation of concrete mixes containing recycled concrete aggregate and calcined termite mound for low-cost housing

Alternative substitutes to convectional building and construction materials which pose environmental challenges, will be a bonus to the construction industries. This research investigates the suitability of calcined termite mound as partial substitute for cement and recycled concrete aggregate as aggregates substitute in the production of concrete. Termite mound clay in its natural state was obtained, calcined, and pulverized to the fineness of 75 µm. Various concrete mixes were formulated in which Ordinary Portland cement was partially replaced with Calcined Termite Mound (CTM) from 0% to 25% replacement at a step size of 5%, and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) was also used as a partial replacement of the coarse natural aggregate (NA) at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% by weight replacement. Compressive strength test, setting time test, slump test, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), were used to characterize the test materials and the concrete specimens. The results show that addition of either RCA or CTM will lead to reduction in the compressive strength. However, when RCA is combined with CTM, the optimum combinations suitable for structural load bearing members were found to be 60% RCA, 40% NA with 5% CTM. Other comparable mixes were also discovered.

Macrotermes falciger termite mounds as indicators of lithogeochemical anomalies of metals of interest

This study investigated the potential lithogeochemical filiation of Macrotermes falciger termite mound materials and the parent substrate materials sampled in both the Sakania and Tshisenda areas of the Haut-Katanga Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo. These geological areas with predominantly autochthonous cover are characterized by lateritic type profiles. Mineralogical characterization of Macrotermes falciger termite mound materials by infrared on 20–63 μm fractions indicated the presence of secondary minerals specific to tropical weathering. Further mineralogical analysis of 0–20 μm fractions using XRD also identified such primary and secondary minerals in these materials. A multi-element chemical analysis was performed on the <125 μm fractions of the different lithological substrates (granitic rock, feldspathic sandstone, and lateritic duricrust) as well as of the Macrotermes falciger termite mounds. Using log Fe2O3t/K2O vs logSiO2/Al2O3 ratios, all the samples were geochemically classified and lithogeochemical relationships were established. We showed that the yellow, grey and beige termite mounds were characterized by lithogeochemical facies of quartz-rich and slightly altered substrates (granite, arkose…) whereas the red termite mounds had lithogeochemical facies of clay formations associated with iron oxyhydroxides with less quartz. The accumulation of oxyhydroxides (Al, Fe, Mn) and the enrichment of low-mobility trace elements (Zr and Hf) in some mound materials allowed us to identify the Macrotermes falciger material supply zone between the accumulation horizon marked by chemical precipitation phenomena and the horizon of progressive transition to altered bedrock. Carrier phases of metals of interest, such as Cu, Co, Ni, Pb and Zn, were identified through scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) on constitutive particles of Macrotermes falciger termite mounds. These 5 metals of interest were sorted into <63 μm, 20–63 μm and 0–20 μm fractions, then chemically analyzed to reveal their accumulation in the 0–20 μm fractions. These results, provide clear evidence that Macrotermes falciger termite mound materials are ideal for providing information on lithogeochemical anomalies in geochemical prospection.

Abundance, perceptions and utilizations of termite mounds in Cambodia

AbstractIn the Lower Mekong Basin, paddy fields often appear as mosaics, with soil mounds covered by trees or other plants in a spotty distribution. These soil mounds are commonly named termite ‘lenticular mounds’ because termite bioturbation is considered to be at their origin. Termite mounds host a large diversity of animals and plants, increasing landscape patchiness. Because the preservation of these islands of biodiversity is threatened by modern agricultural practices, the aim of this study was to quantify their abundance and the services they provide to the local population. The abundance of mounds and their use by the population were quantified in a catchment in Cambodia. We found that mounds density reached ~2 mounds ha−1. Interviews carried out within the catchment showed that most of the interviewees used mounds for increasing the fertility of their field and for the cultivation of rice and other plants (e.g. sponge gourd and pumpkin). In addition to their potential to increase plant productivity, the survey revealed that animals (rats and snakes), mushrooms and 13 plant species found on or in mounds were consumed by the population. In addition to potentially contributing to an increase in food diversity, mounds also impacted farmers' health by allowing access to 20 medicinal plant species and indirectly via a reduction in pesticide use. In conclusion, this study is the first attempt to quantify the large number of services provided by termite mounds in Cambodia. This increase in the knowledge of the diversity of environmental and socioeconomic services provided by termite mounds is likely to contribute to their preservation and provide a basis for the sustainable management of biodiversity in paddy fields in the Lower Mekong Basin region.

Response of termite mounds to changes of geomorphic forms and processes and associated edaphic variations

Despite extensive research on edaphic variations due to termitaria development, there have been no studies dedicated toward showing how changes in geomorphological components affect the lifecycle stages of termitaria. In this study, we assessed (1) the responses of termite mounds (in terms of their life stages) to changes in geomorphic forms and processes in northeastern Iran; and (2) how extinction of termite mounds encourages a trend of land degradation in semi-arid ecosystems. Samples of soil around active, abandoned, and extinct termite mounds located on young, intermediate, and old alluvial fan surfaces were gathered. Twenty soil physicochemical properties were selected and measured to determine the comparative soil quality indices (SQI). The highest mean SQI value was observed among intermediate fans, where the greatest proportion of active mounds was located. The mean SQI for young and old fans, where the greatest proportion of abandoned mounds was located, displayed a statistically significant decrease. The SQI of areas with extinct mounds exhibited the lowest statistical value. The lower soil quality values for the old and young fans is due to seasonal and annual flooding and associated depositional processes, leading to surface instability on these landforms. The development of gully erosion processes in old fans inhibits soil development and encourages the abandoning of termite mounds. By contrast, the relative stability of the intermediate fan surfaces enables soils to develop, due to the fewer flooding, inundation, and gullying processes, prompting more stability of the termite mounds. These findings describe how environmental changes stimulated by the different geomorphic forms and processes affect the stability trend of termite mounds and lead to changes in their lifecycle stages.

Zoogenic soil horizons – termite ecosystem engineers in different agro-ecological regions of Mozambique

Termite nests represent a typical ecosystem engineered to produce a solid and long-lasting home where individuals are protected from predators, rainfall, and sunlight, while maintaining requisite temperatures and humidity. To achieve this, termites translocate and rework soil material as a unique pedogenic force, exposing it to soil genesis factors that may vary temporally. To date, limited information exists on zoogenic soil genesis from termites, with a few reports on the pedomorphological characterization of termite mounds and of the different genetic horizons developed therein. The aims of this work were to report the pedomorphological and physicochemical characterization of termite mounds in two selected sub-tropical agro-ecological zones of Mozambique and to define the genesis of zoogenic soil horizons that form termite mounds. Common soil features like channels and galleries are related to the ability of termites to create a suitable environment for the colony and are created through modification and reworking of soil and subsoil materials. Because of this, termites can be considered as the main pedogenic force, which fosters horizons different in pedomorphological and physicochemical features with respect to the surrounding soil. In view of this, new suffixes or diagnostic horizons may be useful in the characterization of soil horizons affected by bioturbation.

Effect of termite mounds on soil microbial communities and microbial processes: Implications for soil carbon and nitrogen cycling

Fungus-feeding termites are considered to be ecosystem engineers because of their ability to construct massive and complex mounds with different soil physicochemical and biological properties in tropical ecosystems. However, the impact of the termite nesting process on soil microbial communities and microbial functions related to nutrient cycling is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated termite-induced changes in soil microbial communities and their nutrient cycling functions within termite mounds (i.e. live mounds and abandoned mounds) in the humid tropical region of Southwest China. We found that the live mounds harbour intermediate microbial community richness (i.e. PLFAs, fungi, bacteria, G+, and G- bacteria) between surrounding topsoils and deep soils, with the ratio of fungi to bacteria (F:B) in mounds being significantly higher than in surrounding soils. However, the microbial communities gradually transformed to resemble the surrounding soils after the mounds were abandoned because of natural weathering and plant invasion. A relatively more uniform distribution of microbial communities was found within live mounds than in abandoned mounds and surrounding soils, suggesting that termites shaped the environment within the mounds, leading to the homogenisation of microbial communities. In addition, the termite-induced changes of soil physicochemical properties (e.g. water content, pH, organic matter, total N and P) were closely linked to microbial communities. We also observed a reduction in microbial processes associated with nutrient cycling, including microbial respiration, and extracellular enzymatic activities, in mounds relative to the surrounding topsoils. These findings have important implications for exploring microbial communities within termite mounds, which is critical to understand the potential role of termites in regulating soil carbon and nitrogen cycling in tropical ecosystems.

Antimicrobial Activity of Bacterial Strains Isolated from Macrotermes belli-cosus Termite Mound

Natural environments like termite mounds can be a reservoir for novel microbial strains and antimicrobial metabolite producers. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial activities of bacterial strains isolated from Macrotermes bellicosus (M. bellicosus) termite mound materials. These materials were sampled from active termite mounds in the Somgandé botanic reserve in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The study collected sixty-three bacterial isolates and assessed their antimicrobial activity against several pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus) and two pathogenic fungi (Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans). The dual culture and paper disc diffusion assays revealed that 10 isolates (5 bacteria and 5 actinobacteria) inhibited the growth of at least one pathogenic microorganism. In comparison, four isolates inhibited both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Overall, isolates MBm2, MBm8 (bacteria), and MBm26 (actinobacterium) displayed better antibacterial- and antifungal activity against all tested pathogenic microorganisms. It is germane to indicate here that several typical bacteria and actinobacteria isolated from the M. bellicosus termite mound materials were good producers of antibacterial and antifungal agents. Thus, future studies could further characterize these isolates and optimize their growth for producing antimicrobial compounds. The bioactive compounds should also be identified for further biotechnological applications.

Predicting the Habitat Suitability and Distribution of Two Species of Mound-Building Termites in Nigeria Using Bioclimatic and Vegetation Variables

Temperature is an important factor determining the abundance, distribution and diversity of termite species. Thus, termites are affected by changing climate and have to adopt different means of surviving in order to avoid extinction. Using termite occurrence data, bioclimatic variables and vegetation cover, we modelled and predicted the current and future habitat suitability for mound-building termites in Nigeria. Of the 19 bioclimatic variables and the vegetation index (NDVI) tested, only six were significant and eligible as predictors of habitat suitability for the mound-building termites Macrotermes subhyalinus and M. bellicosus. Under current climatic conditions (2022), the northwest, northeast and central regions are highly suitable for M. subhyalinus, while the distribution of M. bellicosus decreased in the North West, North East and in the Central region. However, regarding habitat suitability for the future (2050), there was a predicted range expansion into suitable areas for the two termite species. The increase in temperature due to global warming has an effect which can either result in migration or sometimes extinction of termite species within an ecosystem. Here, we have predicted habitat suitability for the two mound-building termite species under current and future climatic scenarios, and how the change in climatic variables would lead to an expansion in their range across Nigeria.

Biologging as an important tool to uncover behaviors of cryptic species: an analysis of giant armadillos (Priodontes maximus).

Advances in biologging have increased the understanding of how animals interact with their environment, especially for cryptic species. For example, giant armadillos (Priodontes maximus) are the largest extant species of armadillo but are rarely encountered due to their fossorial and nocturnal behavior. Through the analysis of speed, turning angles, and accelerometer activity counts, we estimated behavioral states, characterized activity budgets, and investigated the state-habitat associations exhibited by individuals monitored with GPS telemetry in the Brazilian Pantanal from 2019 to 2020. This methodology is proposed as a useful framework for the identification of priority habitat. Using the non-parametric Bayesian mixture model for movement (M3), we estimated four latent behavioral states that were named 'vigilance-excavation', 'local search', 'exploratory', and 'transit'. These states appeared to correspond with behavior near burrows or termite mounds, foraging, ranging, and rapid movements, respectively. The first and last hours of activity presented relatively high proportions of the vigilance-excavation state, while most of the activity period was dominated by local search and exploratory states. The vigilance-excavation state occurred more frequently in regions between forest and closed savannas, whereas local search was more likely in high proportions of closed savanna. Exploratory behavior probability increased in areas with high proportions of both forest and closed savanna. Our results establish a baseline for behavioral complexity, activity budgets, and habitat associations in a relatively pristine environment that can be used for future work to investigate anthropogenic impacts on giant armadillo behavior and fitness. The integration of accelerometer and GPS-derived movement data through our mixture model has the potential to become a powerful methodological approach for the conservation of other cryptic species.

Termite mounds affect soil aggregate stability and aggregate-associated phosphorus forms in a tropical rubber plantation

Termite mounds affect soil aggregate stability and aggregate-associated phosphorus forms in a tropical rubber plantation

Sorption of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid from Agricultural Leachate Using Termite Mound Soil: Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology

The extensive use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) pesticide leads to the contamination of surfaces and groundwater. In this respect, it is critical to develop an inexpensive and environmentally friendly adsorbent for 2,4-D-laden agricultural leachate. In the current study, termite mound soil (TMS) from Ethiopia was used as an adsorbent in a batch mode aimed at the removal of 2,4-D from an aqueous solution. The TMS was characterized using Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The effects of various operating parameters such as pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and initial concentration were investigated. In addition, the optimization process and interaction effect were studied using response surface methodology (RSM). A high 2,4-D removal percentage (89.6%) was achieved for a 2,4-D initial concentration of 50.25 mg/L at pH 2, an adsorbent dose of 15.25 g/L, and a contact time of 180.5 min. The 2,4-D adsorption isotherms could be adequately described by the Langmuir model (R2 = 0.9687), while the kinetics of the 2,4-D adsorption on the TMS best fit the pseudo-second-order model. Overall the study showed that TMS is an effective adsorbent for the removal of 2,4-D from agricultural leachate.

Campos tropicais negligenciados: primeiro registro de campo com murundus e suas comunidades vegetais no estado de São Paulo, Brasil

Abstract Tropical grasslands have been systematically neglected worldwide in maps, conservation policies, and ecological studies. After eradicating invasive pine trees from a Cerrado reserve in southeastern Brazil, an unprecedented grassy ecosystem arose in recent satellite images. In the field, we confirmed the first record of wet grasslands with termite mounds – locally named campo com murundus ˗ beyond 21°S in the São Paulo state. Besides reporting this occurrence, we sampled the two plant communities forming this peculiar vegetation type (the mounds and the waterlogged matrix around them) to investigate if they are floristically and functionally distinct. We also explored how these two communities relate to those of the surrounding open vegetation types (savanna, dry and wet grassland). Woody plants were recorded on the mounds but not in the matrix, although the two communities share some ground layer species. Compared to the adjacent vegetation types, the mounds were floristically distinct and functionally more balanced in growth forms, dispersal syndrome, and tolerance to waterlogging. We hope this borderline record of campo com murundus can stimulate the search for other unnoticed remnants out of their known occurrence region, triggering efforts for their conservation and studies to improve comprehension of these iconic ecosystems.

Metagenomics Reveals the Microbiome Multifunctionalities of Environmental Importance From Termite Mound Soils.

The ecological deterioration caused by the continuous and excessive use of synthetic inputs in agriculture has prompted the search for environmentally favorable resources for crop production. Many have advocated for the use of soils from termite mounds to improve soil and plant health; therefore, the purpose of this study was to characterize the microbiome multifunctionalities that are important for plant health and growth in termite mound soil. The metagenomics of soil from termite mounds revealed taxonomic groups with functional potentials associated with promoting the growth and health of plants in nutrient-poor, virtually dry environments. Analysis of microorganisms revealed that Proteobacteria dominated the soil of termite colonies, while Actinobacteria ranked second. The predominance of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria, the well-known antibiotic-producing populations, indicates that the termite mound soil microbiome possesses metabolic resistance to biotic stresses. Functions recognized for diverse proteins and genes unveiled that a multi-functional microbiome carry out numerous metabolic functions including virulence, disease, defense, aromatic compound and iron metabolism, secondary metabolite synthesis, and stress response. The abundance of genes in termite mound soils associated with these prominent functions could unquestionably validate the enhancement of plants in abiotic and biotically stressed environments. This study reveals opportunities to revisit the multifunctionalities of termite mound soils in order to establish a connection between taxonomic diversity, targeted functions, and genes that could improve plant yield and health in unfavorable soil conditions.

A Comparative Study of Gut Enzymes and Nest Materials of Three Mound Building Termites of Eastern India

Termites are found to digest a wide variety of lignocellulosic biomass including wood with high lignin content by the aid of unique cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic microorganisms. A research gap is realized in works associated with termite gut enzyme activities in India. Therefore, the present work is focused on the comparison of termite gut enzyme activities among epigeous, subterranean, arboreal termites and the physicochemical properties of respective mound soils collected from Sambalpur University Campus, Odisha, India. The mound building termites (subterranean and epigeous) showed significantly more cellulase, xylanase and phosphatase enzyme activities than the arboreal termites. The enzyme activities showed efficient correlation with organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium and water holding capacity of respective mound materials. This particular study has provided new information regarding the contribution of three distinct termite species towards soil fertility status. Further, a high quantity of nutrients accumulated in subterranean termite mound soils along with high enzyme activities by subterranean species, O obesus in our study, can be considered a hotspot for microbial concentration, which can be exploited for biofuel production, and mound soil as soil amendment, bioremediation and bio-filtration purpose.

Selectivity of soil constituents by termites in the construction of Brazilian termite mounds

Selectivity of soil constituents by termites in the construction of Brazilian termite mounds

MODIFICATION OF TERMITE MOUND SOIL USING PHOSPHORIC ACID FOR PHOTODEGRADATION OF METHYLENE BLUE DYE UNDER UV LIGHT IRRADIATION

Termite mound was mined from the termite nest spotted at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Kaduna State, Nigeria. It was washed with deionized water and placed in an oven set at 60oC for 6 hrs before crushing with an aggregate impact crusher and sieved into 0.075 m mesh pore size. The sieved soil sample was tagged as unmodified-TMS (termite mound soil). The soil sample was modified using orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) at different (5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 %) concentrations. The modified and unmodified-TMS were characterized by the methods of scanning electronic microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), Electron diffractive X-ray (EDX), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), thermogravimetric analyses (TGA), and Selected area electron diffraction (SAED), The photocatalytic activity of the unmodified-TMS, 5 % TMS-H3PO4, 10 % TMS-H3PO4 , 15 % TMS-H3PO4 , and 20 % TMS-H3PO4, were assessed by testing the degradation rate of Methylene Blue under ultraviolet light irradiation using optimum parameters (1.5 g/L, pH 11 &amp; 75 mg/L). The results indicated that the samples exhibited the best photocatalytic activity at optimum parameters of catalyst dosage 1.5 g /L. pH 11 and 75 mg/L concentration of MB as evidenced by the highest methylene degradation rate of (88 %). The photocatalytic degradation of Methylene blue dye was found to obey first-order kinetics.&#x0D;