Tense Forms Research Articles

Comparative analysis of morphosyntactic rule learning among monolingual, bilingual, and trilingual speakers: a study on Spanish preterite forms

ABSTRACT The research on language acquisition and retention has primarily focused on monolinguals and bilinguals, with comparatively few studies including trilinguals. To address this gap, the current study compares the acquisition and retention of a novel morphosyntactic rule in Spanish in twelve monolinguals, twelve bilinguals, and twelve trilinguals. The participants underwent training on the preterite verb tense in Spanish, and their ability to correctly identify the rule was tested after two days of training. The study also investigated the effect of verb type on the acquisition of novel morphosyntactic rules in monolinguals and multilinguals. The results revealed that all participants performed better during the delayed retention phase than the other phases. However, bilingual participants demonstrated significantly better accuracy in identifying newly learned tense forms than their monolingual and trilingual counterparts. The study also revealed that regular past tense forms were easier to learn than irregular past tense forms. Overall, the findings from this study suggest that individuals who speak more than two languages may face challenges in acquiring additional languages.

Редуплицированные конструкции с глаголом «буол-» ʻбыть, становиться’ в якутском языке: структура и семантика

The aim of the work is to provide a comprehensive description of the structural and semantic features of the constructions formed by doubling the Yakut being verb буол- ‘to be, to become’. The work is novel in that it is the first to identify the types of reduplicated constructions from the verb буол- and their connotations. As a result of the study, it has been found that the intransitive telic verb буол- is actively used in the Yakut language reduplicated and forms a variety of set expressions. The structural organisation of these constructions includes the complete reduplication of the adverbial form ending in -а/-ыы (буола-буола) and the future tense form as a functional modal combination (буолуо-буолуо), as well as combinations of its various forms (adverbial, participial, temporal, etc.). Unlike the doubled forms of other verbs, which serve mainly to express aspectual meanings, the constructions under consideration most often have modal semantics with the connotation of assumption, hypothetical character, special superiority, determination of the speaker or his/her negative attitude (disdain, hopelessness, uncertainty in the implementation of an action).

Pengembangan Media Digital untuk Meningkatkan Literasi Ekonomi Siswa

The abstract version of the English is written using the English version of the British in past tense and appropriate sentences. The result and conclusions are written in the form of the present tense. Abstracts are expected to be more communicative and not monotonous. A simple sentence is English contains a minimum of subject and predicate elements. Economic literacy is the ability to use basic economic concepts and critical thinking in making decisions (Solihat & Arnasik, 2018). Therefore, economic literacy is one of the skills that must be possessed because economic literacy is a useful tool for changing behavior from unintelligent to intelligent. Like how to save, invest, protect and make ends meet (Sina Garlans, 2012). In the development of the ability to economics also continues to grow. One of them is the emergence of digitalization in economic activities. So it is important to have economic literacy needed in the modern era of the 21st century (Anggreini & Waspada, 2020), namely digital economic literacy, especially for high school students who are among the highest internet users in Indonesia. Because it is hoped that they can take a positive impact from the existence of the digital economy, and avoid digital crime. Therefore researchers conduct research and development using the Borg and gall procedural model, to produce products, namely digital media which are learning media that apply the use of technology, information, and communication to convey information (Jannah Noer Rahmawati & Atmojo Widianto Ragil, 2022), by loading digital economic material to increase students' economic literacy. The results showed that digital media is feasible to use in the very valid category with a combined validation result of 87.5%, consisting of 97% from media experts, 81% from material experts, and 86% from audiance validation. As well as being able to increase students' economic literacy with an n-gain test result of 0.68 which is in the moderate or quite effective category

КӨРКӨМ ЧЫГАРМАДАГЫ УБАКТЫЛУУ-КӨРҮНҮШТҮК ФОРМАНЫН ЖАРАЛУУ ПРИНЦИПТЕРИ

Time, type, and temporal displacement are the meanings of forms of microsystems that differ from each other. Artistic time subjugates grammatical time: the present time form is not expressed as "present, now" to any author's speech, nor to any recipient. Here, authorial and reader time, on the one hand, are opposed to the character time, and on the other hand, such a discrepancy is not necessary when using the past tense form. Such multiplicity of temporal- visual form is resolved according to the nature of the relationship, which penetrates and mixes with the highest-level unity of the artistic text. The meaning of the present indefinite form derives from the paradigmatic and syntagmatic core meaning. As soon as these forms are added to the text, their meaning is superimposed on the meaning that has passed. These meanings are not mutually exclusive, they are interrelated. The intersection of various meanings into one form plays a big role in the semantic organization of the temporal structure of the work of art. Having such a complex semantics of the temporal-visual form is a feature of the artistic text.

Peningkatan Hasil Belajar Tematik Terpadu Menggunakan Model CIRC Berbantuan Media Gambar di Kelas IV SDN 29 Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan

This research is motivated by integrated thematic learning in grade IV SDN 29 South Coastal District, this study aims to determine the improvement of the integrated thematic learning process for theme 9 using the CIRC model for class IV SDN 29 Pesisir Selatan Regency. This research is a classroom action research (PTK) which consists of four stages, namely planning, implementation, observation, and reflection. This research was carried out in two cycles consisting of three meetings. This study uses a qualitative and quantitative approach, the subject of this research is the fourth grade educators and students at SDN 29 Pesisir Selatan Regency with a total of twelve students. The results showed an increase in student learning outcomes in class IV, this increase can be seen from the learning implementation planning (RPP) cycle I was 65% and cycle II 72.5%. implementation of learning on the aspect of educators in the first cycle is 67.15% and 75% in the second cycle. the implementation of learning on the aspects of students in the first cycle is 67.15% and the second cycle is 75%, the learning outcomes of students in the first cycle are 56% and the second cycle is 91.66%. thus it can be concluded that the CIRC model in class IV at elementary school in south coastal regency can improve student learning outcomes.while the results and conclusions in the form of simple present tense.

Perception and production mismatch in truncated past tense verbs in Korean

Abstract Korean is often described as neutralizing its obstruents to unreleased stops in coda position. However, a stylistic truncated form of the intimate past tense expressing avuncularity, contradicts this description by realizing a fricative word finally. Despite tokens elicited from informants lacking phonetic evidence for a word-final vowel, speakers report hearing [ɨ] word-finally in these truncated forms. The present article gives an optimality theoretic (OT) account (McCarthy & Prince 1995) of this phenomenon by utilizing Benua’s (1995) base-truncated form (BT) constraints to explain the production of the form and Boersma & Hamann’s (2008) cue constraints to explain the mismatch between the production and perception in parallel to the treatment of loanwords. This suggests that output-output constraints and perceptual cue constraints may interact to create differences in phonological form between production and perception, even within native phonologies, and lends further support for the need for separate production and perception phonologies ( Boersma 1999 ).

BLACK HUMOUR: ORIGIN DESCRIPTION AND AN ATTEMPT OF IDENTIFICATION

The article deals with the study of such black humour aspects as the history of its appearance and attempt of distinguishing among the other types of the comic category, namely humour, irony, satire, and sarcasm. The material of the study is the works of small forms, the authentic story “Pig” in particular, by Roald Dahl (1916–1990), the most prominent representative of the English-language literature of the 20th century. The aim of the article is to describe the methodology suggested by the author for identifying black humour from the material of a literary prose text. Achieving the overall goal presupposes the solution of the following objectives. Thus, the history of development and the tradition of theoretical understanding of the “black humour” term have been traced. An interpretation of the specified term based on native and foreign interpretive sources has been provided and the leading criteria for its differentiation among the varieties of the comic category have been identified. The author considers the peculiarities of R. Dahl’s creative method, whose poetics is characterised by a clearly expressed black-humorous component. The article also specifies the algorithm for identifying black humour in prose works, which involves the use of three groups of analysis methods (linguistic, semasiological and communicative). Using the example of an English-language story, the author proves the expediency of applying the following components of linguistic methods, namely: definition of the unit of study, characterisation of the context, analysis of language units. The following methods and techniques were used to achieve the general aim of the research, such as: observation method, compositional analysis, contextual analysis, and semantic-stylistic analysis. We interpret black humour as one of the varieties of a comic category; as humour with an admixture of cynicism, the comic effect of which consists in mocking ‘gloomy’, macabre topics; as an ironic-bitter smile of a person about his / her miserable situation in the real world. It is proved that the unit of research of black humour is a complex syntactic whole, which in the compositional and thematic substance contains all the necessary structural elements – the beginning, the development, and the ending. The means of connection are repetitions of lexical units within two consecutive phrases, anaphoric clarifying phrase, anaphoric pronoun, parallelism. An important feature of grammatical organisation is the agreement (in a broad sense) of verb tense forms, which leads to the creation of a common tense perspective of the narrative. Modal verbs, particles, adverbs, and special intonation are used as means of expressing subjective modality. A typical feature of the question-answer complex is the use of elliptical sentences. An analysis of language units at different levels determines the emphasis on the macabre element – death that is tragicomically considered in the story. The compositional and speech means of organising black humour is based on opposition, antonymy of lexical units, contrast. The functioning of hyperbole, verbal and situational irony, and paradox are frequent at the lexical and semantic level. Typical means at the syntactic level are overinterrogations and explanations based on repetitions with an evaluation of what was heard. This evaluation is expressed by declarative, exclamatory or interrogative sentences. The graphic emphasis, which is created by means of italics, focuses on the meanings emphasised by interrogative words, auxiliary and notional verbs. Paralinguistic means help to reveal the protagonist’s emotions and thoughts. The perspective of the study presupposes a description of semasiological and communicative methods as components of the algorithm, which, together with linguistic methods, allows a more complete understanding of the explication of black humour in a literary prose work.

MEANS OF REPRESENTING THE EMOTIONAL MEANINGS OF FEAR IN THE WORKS OF A.P. CHEKHOV

The paper discusses the issues of lexical and semantic organization of a group of verbs with the meaning of fear and the peculiarities of the functioning of verbal constructions in the works of A.P. Chekhov. Sentences with verbs of the emotional state of fear are quite common in the works of A.P. Chekhov. The differential meanings of verbs, the specific-temporal meanings of verb forms, semantic models of verbal phrases determine their functional features in the speech of a work of art. Verbs of fear attach forms with subject and object meanings with the semantics of the cause of the condition. Verbs in the form of the past tense of the perfect form realize the dynamic-productive meaning of this form. In the functioning of verbal constructions in the text of A.P. Chekhov's stories, an important factor is their ability to realize the specific temporal meanings of verbal forms as a means of organizing the text.

Probing early lexical and morphological processing in Dutch with the MMN response

The past tense inflection has been a popular phenomenon to study the representational status of morphologically complex words. While several experiments in the processing of past tense verbs across languages have shown these verbs are stored via their constituent morphemes, experiments in the processing of the Dutch past tense indicate that these words are lexically stored in their surface form and therefore not decomposed. However, the experiments in Dutch past tense processing have not made use of experimental paradigms that can tap the earliest stages of word processing, where some theories predict decomposition would take place. We used the mismatch negativity response to study the representational status of monomorphemic and morphologically complex Dutch words. We were able to obtain different responses for monomorphemic and morphologically complex words, suggesting these are processed by different mechanisms. We cannot, however, discard the possibility that some past tense forms in Dutch do have surface form representations.

An OT Account of Negation in Jordanian Arabic

Jordanian Arabic exhibits three forms of negation: preverbal, discontinuous and post-verbal. In this paper, we show how these three forms of negation could be accounted for from an OT perspective. Concisely, our main goal is to find out form-specific ranking(s) of the set of universal constraints that condition negation in this dialect. We argue that negation is tense-dependent in this dialect (viz. different tense forms opt for different constraint rankings). We propose a set of universal constraints that constrain the native speaker’s choice of the negation pattern(s) with the verb form. Additionally, we demonstrate how these constraints militate against each other to let only the optimal forms surface with each tense. The paper found that one major difference between negated present and past tense is that NegFirst is ranked very low in present verbs but very high in past verbs. Second, *Neg2 and max 3μ interact to block future circumflex negation forms in future verbs. Third, the morph-syntactic expression of negation was found to be subject to weight in that the negators are maximally tri-moraic, a condition which explains why long ma: cannot be a viable alternative when circumflexing negation either with present or past verbs.

Aspect and tense forms of the Russian verb in describing the kinesic behaviour of the characters in A.P. Chekhov’s stories

Non-verbal semiotics is one of the leading areas of modern communication research. The study is devoted to the topical interdisciplinary issue - the relationship between non-verbal semiotics and Russian grammar. The aim of the research is to characterize the representation of the temporal forms of the Russian verb in describing the kinesic behaviour of literary characters. The elements of nonverbal semiotics were analysed in the stories by A.P. Chekhov “Death of an Official”, “Chameleon”, “Thick and Thin”, “Horse Name”, “Surgery”. The following methods were used as the main ones: descriptive, semantic explication, differential, analytical. The methodological foundations of kinesics as an integrative science were considered, the correlation between the verbal realization of kinema and the temporal forms of the Russian verb was revealed. It has been proved that the most recurrent manifestations of non-verbal semiotics in Chekhov's stories are communicative emblems (in particular, etiquette and ritual), symptomatic emblems and dynamic descriptors, nominated with the help of aspect and tense forms of the Russian verb. Emblems-illustrators are quantitatively less represented in the analyzed stories. They are prospective for further research on the example of Russian literary classics.

The Velar-Lips in jafʕal Form of Arabic Present Tense

Arabic has three main vowels, which are the vowel /a/ (fathah), the vowel /i/ (kasrah), and the vowel /u/ (dˁammah). This study analyses the vowels of the Arabic Present Tense in jafʕal form which is related to the arrangement of letters. This study aims at helping Arabic language students who have difficulty determining the correct vowel of the three vowel fractions. In addition, this study can help linguists in general and Arabic linguists in particular to determine the vowel reading of the letter ʕayn (ع) on the active verb pattern of modern Arabic jafʕal which is divided into vowels /a/ (fathah), vowel /i/ (kasrah), and the vowel /u/ (dˁammah). This study applies a qualitative method. Al-Khali:l dictionary and al-MaɁaniy online dictionary were referred for data collection. Three syllable active verbs were analyzed as vowels for these three syllable active verbs in Arabic will change to three different vowels in the Present Tense of the verb. Based on the phonological method proposed by El-Wadi (2005), the analysis focused on the arrangement of the letters ʕayn (ع) in the Past Tense verb which is processed from the phonological method pioneered by Chomsky and Halle (1968). Clearly, the findings of the study have shown that there are effects on the vowel on the ʕayn (ع) active verb of the Arabic Present Tense caused by the arrangement of ʕayn (ع) on the active Arabic verb of the past. At the same time, this study provides an alternative that shows that the vowels at the position of the letter ʕayn (ع) of the active Arabic verb of the present time are non-random.

Aspect processing across languages: A visual world eye-tracking study

The study employed a combination of a picture selection task and Visual World eye-tracking to investigate the processing of grammatical aspect (perfective vs. imperfective) in three languages: Russian, Spanish and English. In order to probe into the cognitive representations triggered by the aspectual forms we contrasted visual representations of different temporal portions of telic events—a snapshot of the process stage (ongoing event) and a snapshot of the immediate aftermath of the event/the result state (completed event). In all three languages, the gaze patterns and offline responses revealed a strong preference for representations of ongoing events in the imperfective condition. This confirms that the imperfective forms in all the three languages draw attention to the in-progress portion of a telic event. In the perfective condition, however, we found robust differences. Russian uses verbal prefixes to mark perfective aspect, and our results suggest that perfective telic verbs in Russian strongly highlight the result state of an event. In Spanish, the perfective past tense form (Preterite) also highlights event completion, but to a lesser extent than in Russian—in line with its less restrictive semantics in not requiring an inherent boundary. In contrast to Russian and Spanish, English speakers did not show a preference for representations of completed events in the perfective (Simple Past) condition. This suggests that the English Simple Past form does not encode a preferential cognitive salience for either the activity portion of an event or its result state, and lends support to the analysis of the English Simple Past as a non-aspectual tense form.

Настоящее время на (–)ЧАР в младописьменном шорском языке

The article analyzed the glossed corpus and concordance of the books “Sacred History ...” and Indication of the “Way to the Kingdom of Heaven ...”, which are publicly available on the LingvoDoc platform located at lingvodoc.ispras.ru. The books are samples of a weakly normalized young–written Shor language - a written version of the Kondom (Shor) dialect. The corpus revealed cases of differences in the language of the first books from the modern language that had not been previously described: a multivariate form of the present tense, combining analytical (kӧlep char-ï ‘bestows'), hyphenated, transitional to synthetic (pildir–char-ï ‘means’), and synthetic (aitchar or aitchar-ï ‘says’) verbal constructions with the same indicator (–)char(ï); elimination of the third person singular affix -ï in synthetic forms of the present tense on (–)char(ï); the processes of synthesizing this time form with an unstable spelling. Our task was to analyze the regularity of these phenomena, as well as the introduction into scientific circulation of materials of the little-studied young-written Shor language, which is now in danger of extinction, as well as the replenishment of the automatic Parser of the Shor language with the missing affixes of multivariate verb forms. It was found that there is a single form of present, with the affix –char, as a more complete form of the present tense affix -cha, formed from the verb chat– ‘to lie’; in analytical constructions, word forms with affix –ï predominate (83.3%), word forms without affix make up only 1.7%, in synthetic forms, the number of word forms without affix is already 45.4%. The rule of falling off -(I)p in the bases ending in a consonant has not yet been normalized and works sporadically; the spelling of the fused-separately multivariate form of the present tense on (–)char has not been normalized either.

Inchoative verbs in constructions with infinitives in 16th‒17th century Russian sources: Searching for the difference

The article focuses on the study of differences between phase verbs in constructions with infinitive clause in the 16th‒17th century Russian writing. The verbs under discussion are: načati, počati, jati, učati, and stati, as well as the verb byti, which does not belong to phase ones, but competes with them in the simple future tense form. The study is limited to the constructions with auxiliary verbs in the perfective present tense form, i. e., those that refer to the future. The data was collected from the Middle Russian subcorpus of the Russian National Corpus. Contexts from the corpus are classified according to the following parameters: auxiliariness, infinitive, agency/non-agency and telicity/atelicity/punctivity of the predicate in the infinitive form, aspectual semantics of the construction (phasal, iterative, habitual, general factual, durative-continuative meanings), the type of the clause in question, the date and the title of the source, its register and genre. It was found that each periphrastic construction has a unique set of properties associated with the paradigmatic limitations of the auxiliary verb, tendency to occur in a certain clause type, register and genre. The constructions are sensitive to various semantic features of infinitive and aspectual semantics of the context. It is argued that constructions with the verb učnu are less associated with the expression of inchoativity since they are attested in the contexts uncommon for inchoative verbs. Two distinct clusters of periphrastic constructions are distinguished: older constructions with the verbs načnu, počnu and imu and newer ones with the verbs učnu, stanu and budu.

NAPOMENE O SINTAKSI BARANJSKOG PREPISA DUŠANOVOG ZAKONIKA

After analyzing the syntactic language in the Baranja transcription, it was discovered that adjectives and verbs generally matched the gender of the noun they were describing, even if the natural and grammatical genders differed. Plural nouns were usually matched with plural verbs, and singular verbs were used with multi-mem- ber subject expressions. The expected form of nouns was typically used with the basic numbers two, three, and four, while the genitive plural form was used with numbers greater than five and with the noun thousand. However, the construction of the base number twelve deviated from the expected form and used the genitive plural instead of the dual form, under the influence of the Serbian vernacular. The Baranja transcription does not differ from other medieval monuments in terms of word order in noun phras- es: the noun phrase generally followed the attribute, although the number of examples in which it follows the noun phrase is not negligible. Also, there were instances where the noun was placed between two attributes. Cases in which the accusative pronominal enclitic precedes the enclitic form of the verb Esmq are also registered in the corpus, which testify to an older word order. Depersonalization, as one of the main character- istics of the style of business law and legal documents, is achieved through the frequent use of passive constructions, primarily reflexive ones. Numerous reflexive passive con- structions and sporadic participial passive constructions contributed to emphasizing the general validity of the legal provisions presented in Dušan’s Code. The tendency to- wards nominalization is reflected in the use of decomposed predicates, built according to different structural models with the copulative verb bQti and semi-copulative verbs dati, imati, ou;initi, etc. Attested examples of decomposed predicates are mostly used in the Baranja transcription of Dušan’s Code in parallel with one-word verb expressions (e.g. biti svade and svaditi se; ou;initi gMsM and gMsiti). The Baranja transcription of Dušan’s Code is rich in examples of the use of participles. The present active participle generally has a determinative role, although there are recorded examples in which it appears in the function of a gerund. The role of an attribute could be taken by the parti- ciple of the present passive. Forms of the preterite active participle most often have the meaning of situational determination. In addition to several examples of the use of this participle in the function of the gerund, there are also isolated examples of its substan- tivization and use in the function of the conjunction. The preterite passive participles were not only found in passive constructions but also as attributes and substantives. The use of the perfect participle was limited to the construction of complex verb tenses and modes. The abundance of examples of sentences with the optative periphrasis da + present, characteristic of the Serbian vernacular, indicates that in the Baranja tran- scription, this was the main way of expressing directivity; at the same time, it should be emphasized that the connection between the particle da and the form of the present tense of the third person singular, dual or plural was most often direct and that confir- mations of interpolation of sentence members are not numerous (except when dealing with enclitic forms of pronouns).

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ТЕМПОРАЛЬНОЇ СИСТЕМИ ОДЕСЬКОГО СПИСКУ «МАЛОГО ЗБІРНИКА ПОВЧАНЬ» ТЕОДОРА СТУДИТА

The article is devoted to studying the specifics of the functioning of the future tense as an important component of the Bulgarian temporal system in the era of the Bulgarian Proto-Renaissance. The research object is an 18th century copy of the «Small Catechism» written by Theodore the Studite, which is a part of the manuscript no.1/154 from the Hryhorovych’s collection kept in the Odesa National Scientific Library. The primary method used for researching the history of languages – the comparative-historical method, is employed here. The involvement of the internal reconstruction approach makes it possible to determine the internal regularities of the development of the Bulgarian language that are valid beyond a particular time. The New Bulgarian monuments, dating to the XVII–XVIII century, from the Odesa manuscript collection are yet not sufficiently described and require careful and in-depth research, that proves the expediency of carrying out this analysis. Furthermore, studying the written monuments of the New Bulgarian period helps to supplement the knowledge about the development of the future tense, and the transformation of its forms, some specific stages of which remain undisclosed. The paper analyzes the forms of the future tense recorded in the text (both simple and compound), characterizes their structural, grammatical and functional particularities, and compares them with other manuscripts of the same period. The article pays special attention to the fact that contrary to the general tendency of using the auxiliary verb щетъ and da-constructions or the abbreviated infinitive as components of future tense forms, the main elements of the forms in the studied manuscript are хотэти and infinitive. The use of combinations б©д© + infinitive as a future tense form, which is not typical for the Bulgarian language history, is fixed. The analysis presented here highlights the regular use of simple future tense forms in subordinate clauses and ascertains their sporadic use in principle ones. Additionally, it notes the special impact of the archaic Middle Bulgarian written tradition and Church Slavonic language of the Eastern redaction on the formation of future tense form in the manuscript.

От Трои до Исландии: репрезентация прошлого в исландских псевдоисторических сагах

The present article analyses the means of preserving the past in Icelandic pseudohistorical sagas, which include Trójumanna saga, Alexanders saga, Gyðinga saga, Rómverja saga, Breta sögur and Veraldar saga. Ways of representing the past are determined by the semantic, compositional and structural innovations which the creators of pseudohistorical sagas in-troduce under the influence of the Scandinavian saga tradition. The narrative in pseudohis-torical sagas is dominated not by characters but rather by events: descriptions of the inter-nal world of individuals are superseded by the narration of their actions; introspective monologues disappear; authored digressions are omitted, which leads to a narrative de-tachment characteristic of the native sagas of the Icelanders. Direct speech is reduced to brief aphoristic statements, whereas periphrastic constructions and rhetorical formulas are omitted in order to clarify the narrative structure of the sagas. The creators of pseudohis-torical sagas convey the past through sequences of historical events (or supposedly histori-cal events) using forms of the past tense or Praesens Historicum, which helps them to visu-alise past events, to present them as happening before the eyes of the narrator and to at-tract the attention of the audience to their significance. In pseudohistorical sagas the func-tion of representing the past is attributed to the speeches of characters (as in Rómverja sa-ga), which were endowed with a different function (of characterising heroes) in the Latin originals, as well as to dreams of supernatural beings (as in Alexanders saga) which had pro-phetic functions in the Latin texts. History in pseudohistorical sagas is genealogised: in the Breta sögur genealogy is used as a way of depicting past events, whereas toponymy is en-dowed with a chronological function. The creator of the Trójumanna saga employs mytho-logical names as a means of representing history: events of the mythical and historical past are correlated with events of Biblical and Ancient history. The chronological sequence of presentating mythological and historical events makes it possible to regard Trójumanna saga, Alexanders saga, Gyðinga saga, Rómverja saga and Breta sögur as jointly forming a unified world history, bringing together mythological and historical past. The creator of the Veral-dar saga not only composes a narrative of the whole history of the world, starting from the day of the Creation, but also includes into his world history the Icelandic lawspeaker Gizur Hallsson alongside the Greeks, Trojans, Romans, Carolingian emperors and the Hohenstau-fen. The multiplicity of sources used by the creators of pseudohistorical sagas can be ac-counted for by their desire to fill in gaps in the narrative and build a chronologically se-quential account of events significant for Scandinavian and British history. To this end, the narrative traceable back to Dares in Hauksbók is supplemented by fragments from Virgil and Ovid, whereas Geoffrey of Monmouth’s adaptation is augmented by a catalogue of Wessex kings from Cadwall to Æthelstan and Merlin’s Prophecy, attributed to Gunnlaug Leifsson. The most semantically important is the interpolation in Breta sögur about the Wessex king Æthelstan, who fostered Hakon (the future king of Norway Hakon the Good), the son of Har-ald the Fair-Haired. The function of the interpolation consisted in uniting Scandinavian his-tory with the history of Britain, and the dynasty of the rulers of Norway with the Anglo-Saxon kings, and, consequently, legitimising the power of the former in Scandinavia and the British Isles. The compilers of pseudohistorical sagas seek to establish a cultural connection between the mythological past of European peoples, who consider themselves descendants of the Trojans, and the historical past of Iceland. By adapting Latin historical works in which the mythological past is represented as historical, the creators of pseudohistorical sagas contributed not only to the reception of the European cultural heritage with its notion of foreign (Trojan) descent but also to the creation of a new mythological past.

Формы актуализации исторического прошлого на плакатах и в стихотворениях Великой Отечественной войны

The article is dedicated to comprehending the variants of actualization of the historical past in poetry and on posters of 1941–1945. Fostering respect for the past became one of the goals of the pre-war years’ propaganda. But art revealed stronger forms of time connection than the mere knowledge of history by contemporaries. The aim of the article is to establish similar types of representation of the past in poetry and poster art. According to Benveniste’s “principle of nonredundancy”, the codes of the arts are mutually untranslatable, so the objectives of the study include establishing the specifics of the forms of actualizing the past in each of arts under study. The simplest type is the spatial (on the poster) or temporal (in poetry) division of history and modernity. Narrative and comparative techniques, each in their own way, speak about the possibility of victory through an appeal to the precedent. On the poster, a multi-frame composition conveys this message. In poetry, composition is a level that is almost not used to express the concepts I am interested in. Retrospection can be introduced in any part of the text and is supported by comparative constructions, semantics of adverbs and pronoun, the special dynamics of verb tense forms. In other types, history is present in modernity. This can happen indirectly through the inclusion in the plane of the present cultural signs of the past: monuments or books. They do not point to real events, but to actual historical ideas and myths. The most effective force is works that implement the metaphor of the past helping in the battles. For this, poster artists created a special two-level composition with a coloristic opposition of the planes and their comparison at the level of poses’ and figures’ identity. The past personifies in the person of the glorified generals and naval commanders, and poetry also recreates the resurrection and participation in modernity of nameless, seemingly unheroic ancestors. The pragmatics of addressing the past in such works was different – they evoked a sense of responsibility to history. The past was also actualized in the concept of the immortal collective body of the people. When implementing this idea, poetry does not abandon the linear development of time, describing the historical path of the people as the centuries-old life of the giant individual. The poster, which focuses on only one point, reveals the soul of ancient warriors in contemporaries. Posters with deformed shadows become the means of embodying this idea. Finally, the past appears in the form of reincarnation of heroes. Formally such works are devoid of a second plane, but it is present in the form of allusions that establish an internal or external similarity of modern heroes with a historical person. This type, like the previous one, speaks of the embodiment of national typical features in contemporaries – the most reliable form of the presence of the past in the present.

Distribution of (non-)syllabic present tense forms of the verb býti in the 3rd-person singular in Old Czech

In the presented article, I follow the previous works investigating clitics in the history of the Czech language. Particularly, I aim to describe the distribution of the 3sg present tense be forms in Old Czech prosaic texts dated to the 14th and 15th centuries, and, subsequently, assess their status in the scope of the grammaticalization theory. Since each form bears several functions in a clause, I explore the effect of both the verb's function and form on its distribution. The observations made here are then contextualized, compared to the contemporary Czech, as well as the Old Czech situation, especially focusing on the 2sg forms that show a similar formal variation as the 3sg forms. The numerical data presented here are supplemented with statistical tests whose results and methods are in detail published online on GitHub.