Television Exposure Research Articles

Take the Media Plunge: Become an Expert, Enhance Your Practice, Engage Your Patients

Program Description: Unprecedented availability of health-related information on the Internet, television, radio, and print has empowered our patients to play larger roles in medical decision making. Increasingly, to help educate a knowledge-hungry public and to help build their practices, otolaryngologists must interact with journalists. Formal media training is often lacking in residency or fellowship, making this task seem daunting. This miniseminar reveals the multitude of media opportunities, including those on the Academy Web site, and how to best interact with journalists and the public. Speakers include renowned television and print health journalists and otolaryngologists with media experience. Audience participation is encouraged. Educational Objectives: (1) Improve their communication with journalists. (2) Recognize the opportunities within and outside the Academy for print, television, radio, and online media exposure. (3) Increase involvement with the media to enhance your practice and educate your patients.

Television Exposure, Sleep Time, and Neuropsychological Function Among Preschoolers

We explored whether sleep time mediates the relation between preschoolers' television exposure and two indicators of neuropsychological function: executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). With a sample of 107 preschoolers and their parents, we found that heavier background television exposure and nighttime television viewing were related to fewer hours of sleep, which, in turn, was related to weaker ToM. However, sleep time did not mediate the relation between intentional television viewing and EF. In this article, we discuss the importance of understanding the mechanisms by which television exposure can affect children's neuropsychological function and offer several alternative explanations.

Exposure to electronic cigarette television advertisements among youth and young adults.

Currently, the US Food and Drug Administration does not regulate electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) marketing unless it is advertised as a smoking cessation aid. To date, the extent to which youth and young adults are exposed to e-cigarette television advertisements is unknown. The objective of this study was to analyze trends in youth and young adult exposure to e-cigarette television advertisements in the United States. Nielsen data on television household audiences' exposure to e-cigarette advertising across US markets were examined by calendar quarter, year, and sponsor. Youth exposure to television e-cigarette advertisements, measured by target rating points, increased 256% from 2011 to 2013. Young adult exposure increased 321% over the same period. More than 76% of all youth e-cigarette advertising exposure occurred on cable networks and was driven primarily by an advertising campaign for 1 e-cigarette brand. E-cigarette companies currently advertise their products to a broad audience that includes 24 million youth. The dramatic increase in youth and young adult television exposure between 2011 and 2013 was driven primarily by a large advertising campaign on national cable networks. In the absence of evidence-based public health messaging, the current e-cigarette television advertising may be promoting beliefs and behaviors that pose harm to the public health. If current trends in e-cigarette television advertising continue, awareness and use of e-cigarettes are likely to increase among youth and young adults.

The Effects of Background Television on the Quantity and Quality of Child-Directed Speech by Parents

Prior research has identified negative effects of background television (TV) exposure on toddler toy play and parent–child interactions and has documented a negative association between early TV exposure and language development. It is hypothesized that background, adult-directed TV reduces the quantity and quality of parent language addressed to their young children. To test this hypothesis, the current study compared parent language directed at 12-, 24-, and 36-month-old toddlers (N = 49) in the presence and absence of background TV. In the presence of background TV, the number of words and utterances spoken per minute by the parent decreased as did the number of new words per minute. However, mean length of utterances did not differ. Because parent input is an important factor for language acquisition, development may be negatively affected by background TV exposure.

Association of television violence exposure with executive functioning and white matter volume in young adult males

Prior research has indicated that self-reported violent media exposure is associated with poorer performance on some neuropsychological tests in adolescents. This study aimed to examine the relationship of executive functioning to violent television viewing in healthy young adult males and examine how brain structure is associated with media exposure measures. Sixty-five healthy adult males (ages 18–29) with minimal video game experience estimated their television viewing habits over the past year and, during the subsequent week, recorded television viewing time and characteristics in a daily media diary. Participants then completed a battery of neuropsychological laboratory tests quantifying executive functions and underwent a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. Aggregate measures of executive functioning were not associated with measures of overall television viewing (any content type) during the past week or year. However, the amount of television viewing of violent content only, as indicated by both past-year and daily diary measures, was associated with poorer scores on an aggregate score of inhibition, interference control and attention, with no relationship to a composite working memory score. In addition, violent television exposure, as measured with daily media diaries, was associated with reduced frontoparietal white matter volume. Future longitudinal work is necessary to resolve whether individuals with poor executive function and slower white matter growth are more drawn to violent programming, or if extensive media violence exposure modifies cognitive control mechanisms mediated primarily via prefrontal cortex. Impaired inhibitory mechanisms may be related to reported increases in aggression with higher media violence exposure.

Hours of Television Viewing and Sleep Duration in Children

This study used longitudinal data to examine potential associations between hours of television viewing and sleep duration in children. To examine the association between hours of television viewing and sleep duration in preschool and school-aged children. Longitudinal, multicenter study among birth cohorts in Menorca, Sabadell, and Valencia from the Spanish Infancia y Medio Ambiente (environment and childhood) project. The study sample included 1713 children (468 from Menorca, 560 from Sabadell, and 685 from Valencia). Parent-reported child television viewing duration measured in hours per day at 2 and 4 years of age in Sabadell and Valencia and at 6 and 9 years of age in Menorca. Parent-reported child sleep duration measured in hours per day at 2 and 4 years of age in Sabadell and Valencia and at 6 and 9 years of age in Menorca. In cross-sectional analysis, children with longer periods of television viewing reported at baseline (≥ 1.5 hours per day) had shorter sleep duration. Longitudinally, children with reported increases in television viewing duration over time (from <1.5 to ≥ 1.5 hours per day) had a reduction in sleep duration at follow-up visits. Results were similar when examining television viewing duration as a continuous variable, with each 1 hour per day of increased viewing decreasing sleep duration at follow-up visits (β = -0.11; 95% CI, -0.18 to -0.05). Associations were similar when television viewing duration was assessed during weekends and after adjusting for potential intermediate factors (child executive function and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms) and confounders (child physical activity level, parental mental health status, maternal IQ, and maternal marital status). Children spending longer periods watching television had shorter sleep duration. Changes in television viewing duration were inversely associated with changes in sleep duration in longitudinal analysis. Parents should consider avoiding long periods of daily television exposure among preschool and school-aged children.

Television on Women’s Empowerment in India

We used a nationwide demographic survey to study the relation between television exposure and women’s empowerment in India. Ordinary least squares (OLS) results suggested that TV exposure improved Indian women’s status. We used the propensity score matching (PSM) method to mitigate the potential threat of endogeneity. The results indicate that TV exposure is correlated with greater awareness of autonomy, greater financial independence, less unwanted pregnancy (birth control), negative attitude toward beating, a lower tendency of giving birth, a smaller family, and a lower preference level for sons.

College Football Success and the Quantity and Quality of Applicants: Evidence from the BCS

College football has become big business for universities with the increase in television contracts and exposure. Concurrently, as a recent Harris Interactive poll indicates, college football has the same level of popularity as Major League Baseball. With this increase in popularity, questions arise about the effects on applications, enrollment, and the quality of the students at a university. In this paper, we use a panel data set of university funding, applications, enrollment and the quality of students at the university measured by percentile on entrance exams from 2002 to 2009 to examine the effects of various levels of success including: BCS national championships, conference championships and AP top 25 rankings. Our results indicate, individually, that national championships and AP top 25 rankings can lower the quantity and quality of applicants and enrollees, however, conference championships can positively impact the quantity and quality of applicants and enrollees. Yet, when the success measures are combined, tests reveal that overall success negatively affects the quantity and quality of applicants and enrollees.

Television viewing through ages 2-5 years and bullying involvement in early elementary school

BackgroundHigh television exposure time at young age has been described as a potential risk factor for developing behavioral problems. However, less is known about the effects of preschool television on subsequent bullying involvement. We examined the association between television viewing time through ages 2-5 and bullying involvement in the first grades of elementary school. We hypothesized that high television exposure increases the risk of bullying involvement.MethodTV viewing time was assessed repeatedly in early childhood using parental report. To combine these repeated assessments we used latent class analysis. Four exposure classes were identified and labeled “low”, “mid-low”, “mid-high” and “high”. Bullying involvement was assessed by teacher questionnaire (n = 3423, mean age 6.8 years). Additionally, peer/self-report of bullying involvement was obtained using a peer nomination procedure (n = 1176, mean age 7.6 years). We examined child risk of being a bully, victim or a bully-victim (compared to being uninvolved in bullying).ResultsHigh television exposure class was associated with elevated risks of bullying and victimization. Also, in both teacher- and child-reported data, children in the high television exposure class were more likely to be a bully-victim (OR = 2.11, 95% CI: 1.42-3.13 and OR = 3.68, 95% CI: 1.75-7.74 respectively). However, all univariate effect estimates attenuated and were no longer statistically significant once adjusted for maternal and child covariates.ConclusionsThe association between television viewing time through ages 2-5 and bullying involvement in early elementary school is confounded by maternal and child socio-demographic characteristics.

Sex on the Shore: Wishful Identification and Parasocial Relationships as Mediators in the Relationship Between Jersey Shore Exposure and Emerging Adults' Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors

Exposure to highly sexualized television programs has been correlated with emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors. However, little is known about the variables that may mediate these relationships. The studies presented here investigated wishful identification and parasocial relationships withJersey Shore cast members as mediators in the relationship between exposure to Jersey Shore and permissive sexual attitudes. In Study 1, a secondary examination of content analysis data suggested that sex was pervasive on Jersey Shore. Analyses revealed that, on average, one sexual instance occurred every minute on Jersey Shore. The frequency of sexual instances on Jersey Shore was significantly higher than the frequency of sexual instances in other popular primetime television programs. In Study 2, data collected from a sample of emerging adults revealed a positive relationship between Jersey Shore exposure and permissive sexual attitudes mediated by participants' wishful identification and parasocial relationships with Jersey Shore cast members. Permissive sexual attitudes were positively correlated with sexual activity. Results are consistent with predictions made by cultivation and social cognitive theory. The relationships between television exposure, wishful identification, parasocial relationships, and emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors are the focus of the discussion.

The relation between television exposure and executive function among preschoolers.

This study investigated the relations between television exposure during the preschool years and the development of executive function (EF). Data were gathered from 107 parents of preschoolers who provided information on children's television viewing, background television exposure, exposure to specific televised content, and the age at which children began watching television. Preschoolers' EF was assessed via one-on-one interviews. We found that several indicators of television exposure were significantly related to EF. These findings suggest that EF may be an important construct for continued research on the effects of media on young children.

Impact of Television Health Programmes on Women: A Study on Gulbarga Television Viewers

An attempt has been made to explore and study the consumption pattern in regards to the health programmes on television for women ages above 20. The study also include women’s rationale for watching health-related shows, their perception of the situations portrayed on these shows and also the impact on them based on the sample of 120 respondents in selected areas of Gulbarga city of Karnataka state. The results are discussed and have been observed the types of television programmes are viewed, popularity of different channels and their contents among women and the opinion of health programmes among viewers. The objective of research was to understand the relationship between viewer motives for watching television and interpersonal relationship perceptions. The interpersonal relationship perceptions that were examined included: attachment styles, love styles, and Machiavellianism. This research used both quantitative surveys and focus group interviews as data. The quantitative data analysis produced support of genre specific media effects. First, motives were examined in relation to the television. Watching for positive outcomes was positively related to television viewing and watching for interpersonal outcomes was negatively related. Second, the relationship between television exposure and relationship perceptions was examined. Respondents discussed how health programmes on television made them to be aware of their health condition and also how to remedy for common disease including personal health care. Finally, respondents agreed that health programmes are very helpful for providing information and remedies about certain common disease.

The Role of Coviewing in the Development of Materialistic Attitudes

Given the economic climate the United States is facing, understanding how consumers are socialized could help lead to solutions that could alleviate the average citizen's financial outlook. This study sought to explain the influence of coviewing on materialism among college students. Eighty-one undergraduates were surveyed about their exposure to television, frequency of coviewing with peers, and materialistic attitudes. For those students who coview more often, there is a positive relationship between television exposure and materialistic attitudes, r (48) = 0.294, p < .05. Given the negative impact of materialism on a person's life, the need to bring awareness to these findings is discussed.

Symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and home learning environment (HLE): findings from a longitudinal study

The concept of “Home Learning Environment” (HLE) covers activities in a family providing intellectual stimulation for a child, such as reading to him or her or visiting libraries. Numerous studies have shown an association between HLE and children's cognitive development. In this longitudinal study, we focus on HLE as a predictor for children's behavioral development, namely, for later symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), controlling for relevant aspects like socioeconomic status (SES), or television viewing behavior. We analyzed the development of ADHD symptoms from kindergarten to the end of grade 2 and possible associations with HLE, SES, and television exposure, using a German community sample (N = 924). Results indicated that ADHD symptoms were negatively and significantly correlated to HLE for all five measurement points as well as to SES (except T4) and to television exposure for T1 to T4. Observing later development, only early HLE but not SES or television exposure served as a significant predictor for ADHD symptoms at school, when age, sex, and ADHD symptoms in kindergarten were controlled for. A structural equation model showed that HLE acted as a mediator between SES and later ADHD symptoms. Our results highlight the importance of the concept of home learning environment also for children's behavioral development. As a consequence, parents should be supported in offering their children a more favorable learning environment.

The Relation Between Television Exposure and Theory of Mind Among Preschoolers

This study explored the relation between preschoolers' television exposure and one important indicator of cognitive processing called theory of mind (ToM). A total of 107 preschoolers and their parents provided data on the preschoolers' television exposure (including both intentional viewing and exposure via background television), parent–child discussion of television, and preschoolers' ToM. The results indicated that preschoolers who were exposed to more background television and who had a television in their bedroom performed more poorly on ToM assessments compared with other children. Parent–child discussion of television was positively related to ToM performance, however. These results have implications for how we understand the effects of television on preschoolers.

Modeling Meanness: Associations Between Reality TV Consumption, Perceived Realism, and Adolescents' Social Aggression

Although research documents connections between adolescents' television exposure and both their physical and social aggression, less is known about contributions of reality television. Might this genre be even more influential than other media formats because it features real-life people and may be perceived as more realistic? To examine this question, we surveyed 174 adolescents who indicated their regular exposure to five media formats or genres, their consumption of 23 socially aggressive reality TV programs, their perceptions of the realism of reality TV content, and their engagement in each of 22 socially aggressive acts. As expected, frequent consumption of socially aggressive reality programming was associated with higher levels of social aggression, contributing above and beyond other media. Moreover, findings were particularly strong among adolescents attributing higher levels of realism to this content. Gender, however, did not moderate these associations. Implications for future analyses of adolescent media use are discussed.

Mental- and Physical-Health Effects of Acute Exposure to Media Images of the September 11, 2001, Attacks and the Iraq War

Millions of people witnessed early, repeated television coverage of the September 11 (9/11), 2001, terrorist attacks and were subsequently exposed to graphic media images of the Iraq War. In the present study, we examined psychological- and physical-health impacts of exposure to these collective traumas. A U.S. national sample (N = 2,189) completed Web-based surveys 1 to 3 weeks after 9/11; a subsample (n = 1,322) also completed surveys at the initiation of the Iraq War. These surveys measured media exposure and acute stress responses. Posttraumatic stress symptoms related to 9/11 and physician-diagnosed health ailments were assessed annually for 3 years. Early 9/11- and Iraq War–related television exposure and frequency of exposure to war images predicted increased posttraumatic stress symptoms 2 to 3 years after 9/11. Exposure to 4 or more hr daily of early 9/11-related television and cumulative acute stress predicted increased incidence of health ailments 2 to 3 years later. These findings suggest that exposure to graphic media images may result in physical and psychological effects previously assumed to require direct trauma exposure.

Is the Multi-Platform Whole More Powerful Than Its Separate Parts?

<h3>ABSTRACT</h3> Cross-media campaigns are becoming a norm, yet there is a lack of knowledge on how they impact sales. This paper documents the sales response to cross-media campaigns and finds that, when online advertising is added to a television campaign, the extra reach achieved is primarily duplicated. Regularly a single television exposure stimulates sales among those exposed, with online advertising demonstrating a similar yet less consistent response. We do not find evidence of a synergy in sales impact, where the sum effect of exposure to both television and online is greater than the parts. We highlight challenges with such single-source research.

Mass Media and Rural Out-Migration in the Context of Social Change: Evidence from Nepal.

This work examines the influence of mass media on rural out-migration using historical and contemporary data from a setting experiencing massive social and economic development in the last half-century. Data come from the Chitwan Valley Family Study, an ongoing study of an agrarian region in rural Nepal. Media are hypothesized to affect migration by inducing attitudinal and behavioral changes similar to those of other determinants of migration. As their influence differs from other determinants in important ways, media represent a unique form of influence that should be taken into account. I find that movie and television exposure are significant determinants of out-migration in historical contexts, although television exposure was important in more contemporary contexts. Differences in these effects probably indicate the timing of the spread of each type of media and changing preferences among media consumers.

Low-Income Child Consumers across Cultures: An Investigation of Children's Consumer Behavior in Three Diverse Communities in North America

Children are exposed to many commercial messages in a given year. Yet, not all child consumers are the same. The purpose of this study was to explore children's consumer behavior, aged 3 to 8, in three diverse low-income communities. One set of children were from western Canada, one from rural Appalachia and the last from the urban northeast of the United States. The study tested whether there were differences across groups for parent-reported purchase requests and purchase related conflict. The results showed wide differences between these three sets of communities. Children from Canada made significantly fewer purchase requests and engaged in less conflict with parents, while the children from the urban northeast made the most purchase requests and experienced the greatest amount of purchase related conflict. The study further tested whether secondary variables accounted for this difference (e.g. television exposure, age). These variables could not account for the differences between communities.