Simulated Task Research Articles

Effects of perceived illegitimacy of interrupting tasks on employees’ cognitive and affective experiences: the mediating role of stress appraisals

ABSTRACT Employees are frequently interrupted when doing their work, sometimes with tasks that seem unreasonable or unnecessary. Drawing on stress-as-offence-to-self and stress appraisal theories, we expected that perceived illegitimacy of an interrupting task is detrimental to employees’ affective (i.e., anxiety, fatigue, vitality) and cognitive (i.e., task focus, attention residue) reactions to an interruption, because such interruptions are appraised as more of a hindrance and less of a challenge. To test this, we first used a within-persons recall study, where participants (N = 144) recalled two interrupting tasks, one perceived as legitimate, and one illegitimate. As expected, perceived illegitimacy of the interrupting task was associated with more anxiety and less task focus, because of more hindrance appraisal. Perceived illegitimacy also was associated with less vitality, task focus, and more attention residue, because of less challenge appraisal. Second, using a between-persons manipulation of an interrupting task in a work simulation (N = 231), perceived illegitimacy was associated with more anxiety, fatigue, attention residue, and less task focus, because of more hindrance appraisal. Furthermore, participants performed worse on the interrupting task because of more hindrance appraisal and less task focus. Overall, interrupting tasks perceived as illegitimate can be more negatively impacting, because such interruptions are appraised as hindering.

Development and usability of a virtual reality umbilical venous catheter placement simulator.

Exposure to procedures varies in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). A method to teach procedures should be available without patient availability, expert oversight, or simulation laboratories. To fill this need, we developed a virtual reality (VR) simulation for umbilical vein catheter (UVC) placement and sought to establish its face and content validity and usability. Engineers, software developers, graphic designers, and neonatologists developed a VR UVC placement simulator following a participatory design approach. The software was deployed on the Meta Quest 2 head-mounted display (HMD). Neonatal nurse practitioners (NNPs) from a level 4 NICU used the simulator and completed an 11-item questionnaire to establish face and content validity. Participants also completed the validated simulation task load index and system usability scale to assess the usability of the simulator. Group 1 tested the VR simulation, which was optimized based on feedback, prior to Group 2's participation. A total of 14 NNPs with 2-37years of experience participated in testing. Participants scored the content and face validity of the simulator highly, with most giving scores ≥ 4/5. Usability was established with relatively high average system usability scores for both groups (Group 1: 67.14 ± 7.8, Group 2: 71 ± 14.1) and low SIM-TLX scores indicating manageable load while using the simulator. After optimization, Group 2 found the UVC simulator to be realistic and effective. Both groups felt the simulator was easy to use and did not cause physical or cognitive strain. All participants felt the UVC simulator provided a safe environment to make mistakes, and the majority would recommend this experience to trainees.

Losses disguised as wins evoke the reward positivity event-related potential in a simulated machine gambling task.

Electronic gambling machines include a suite of design characteristics that may contribute to gambling-related harms and require more careful attention of regulators and policymakers. One strategy that has contributed to these concerns is the presentation of "losses disguised as wins" (LDWs), a type of salient losing outcome in which a gambling payout is less than the amount wagered (i.e., a net loss), but is nonetheless accompanied by the celebratory audio-visual stimuli that typically accompany a genuine win. These events could thereby be mistaken for gains, or otherwise act as a reward signal, reinforcing persistent gambling, despite being a loss. This study aimed to determine whether LDWs evoke a reward positivity component in a task modeled on slot machine gambling. A prominent account of the reward positivity event-related potential suggests that it is evoked during the positive appraisal of task-related feedback, relative to neutral or negative events, or that it is evoked by neural systems that implement the computation of a positive reward prediction error. We recruited 32 individuals from university recruitment pools and asked them to engage in a simple gambling task designed to mimic key features of a slot machine design. The reward positivity was identified using temporospatial principal components analysis. Results indicated a more positive reward positivity following LDWs relative to clear losses, consistent with the theory that LDWs contribute to positive reinforcement of continued gambling, despite being net losses.

Exploring the Impact of Hand Dominance on Laparoscopic Surgical Skills Development Using Network Models.

Laparoscopic surgery demands high precision and skill, necessitating effective training protocols that account for factors such as hand dominance. This study investigates the impact of hand dominance on the acquisition and proficiency of laparoscopic surgical skills, utilizing a novel assessment method that combines Network Models and electromyography (EMG) data. Eighteen participants, comprising both medical and non-medical students, engaged in laparoscopic simulation tasks, including peg transfer and wire loop tasks. Performance was assessed using Network Models to analyze EMG data, capturing muscle activity and learning progression. The NASA Task Load Index (TLX) was employed to evaluate subjective task demands and workload perceptions. Our analysis revealed significant differences in learning progression and skill proficiency between dominant and non-dominant hands, suggesting the need for tailored training approaches. Network Models effectively identified patterns of skill acquisition, while NASA-TLX scores correlated with participants' performance and learning progression, highlighting the importance of considering both objective and subjective measures in surgical training. The study underscores the importance of hand dominance in laparoscopic surgical training and suggests that personalized training protocols could enhance surgical precision, efficiency, and patient outcomes. By leveraging advanced analytical techniques, including Network Models and EMG data analysis, this research contributes to optimizing clinical training methodologies, potentially revolutionizing surgical education and improving patient care.

Mesencephalic Locomotor Region and Presynaptic Inhibition during Anticipatory Postural Adjustments in People with Parkinson's Disease.

Individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) and freezing of gait (FOG) have a loss of presynaptic inhibition (PSI) during anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) for step initiation. The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) has connections to the reticulospinal tract that mediates inhibitory interneurons responsible for modulating PSI and APAs. Here, we hypothesized that MLR activity during step initiation would explain the loss of PSI during APAs for step initiation in FOG (freezers). Freezers (n = 34) were assessed in the ON-medication state. We assessed the beta of blood oxygenation level-dependent signal change of areas known to initiate and pace gait (e.g., MLR) during a functional magnetic resonance imaging protocol of an APA task. In addition, we assessed the PSI of the soleus muscle during APA for step initiation, and clinical (e.g., disease duration) and behavioral (e.g., FOG severity and APA amplitude for step initiation) variables. A linear multiple regression model showed that MLR activity (R2 = 0.32, p = 0.0006) and APA amplitude (R2 = 0.13, p = 0.0097) explained together 45% of the loss of PSI during step initiation in freezers. Decreased MLR activity during a simulated APA task is related to a higher loss of PSI during APA for step initiation. Deficits in central and spinal inhibitions during APA may be related to FOG pathophysiology.

The effect of domain-specific exercise on high- and low-level cognitive processing during anticipation

ABSTRACT Skilled anticipation is underpinned by the ability to synthesise high- (e.g., context) and low-level (e.g., biological motion) processes. While researchers have highlighted the effect of physiological load on the pick-up of biological motion from an opponent’s kinematics, how such stress affects the use of contextual information has remained unexplored. In this paper, we conducted an experiment to examine how a fatigue-inducing, cricket-specific exercise protocol affects the use of contextual and kinematic information during anticipation. Altogether, 13 skilled batters completed a validated simulated cricket batting task designed to induce physiological responses representative of competition. Before, after, and during the exercise protocol, participants anticipated the end location of bowling deliveries that presented either opponent kinematics, contextual information (field positioning and game situation), or both. Anticipation responses were more accurate during the exercise protocol than at rest. Also, responses were more accurate when contextual information was available compared with when only kinematic cues were presented. Moreover, from the beginning to the end of the protocol, anticipation responses decreased in accuracy in those conditions in which contextual information was presented and increased in accuracy when only kinematic cues were available. We interpret the findings relative to Attentional Control Theory (Eysenck et al., 2007). Findings highlight the complex nature of expert sports performance and indicate that the effect of domain-specific exercise on anticipation is dependent on the physiological load experienced and the type of information available.

Comparative study to determine the proper sequence of simulation training, pelvic trainer versus virtual reality simulator: a pilot study

BackgroundIncreased surgical efficacy has led to a remarkable increase in the usage of minimally invasive surgical procedures since their inception. The use of simulation in surgical teaching has grown significantly during the past 10 years. Several laparoscopic simulators have been built. Virtual reality (VR) simulators and box trainers (BTs), often known as pelvic trainers, are the two primary training modalities used in hospitals and clinical training institutes for the development and acquisition of laparoscopic skills. Our study aimed to evaluate the proper sequence of pelvic trainers and VR simulator training to improve laparoscopic gynecological skills.MethodologyWe carried out this pilot study at the Virtual Endoscopic Simulation and Skills Acquisition Laboratory at the Obstetrics and Gynecology Department in the Kasr Al Ainy Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt, from February to August 2022. All residents with minimal or without laparoscopic experience (twenty residents) were divided into two groups and classified as (group A versus group B). Group A’s training began with a pelvic trainer, which was tested using a checklist. Later, the group trained on a virtual reality simulator, which tested them using an electronic autoassessment. After training on a virtual reality simulator and passing an electronic autoassessment test, group B moved on to pelvic trainers and had a checklist-based assessment.ResultsWe compared pelvic trainer tasks between the training groups, and detected no significant differences in camera navigation, cutting pattern, peg transfer, or running stitches (P values 0.646, 0.341, 0.179, and 0.939 respectively); when we compared VR simulator tasks between the training groups, there were no significant differences in camera navigation, cutting pattern, peg transfer, or running stitches (P values 0.79, 0.3, 0.33, and 0.06, respectively).ConclusionThere was no difference in training, between residents who started on a pelvic trainer or the VR simulator; therefore, both could be used in laparoscopic training with no preferred order.Trial registrationThe trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov with the name “Pelvic trainer vs VRS” and the identifier “NCT05255614.” The registration date was January 19, 2022, and the trial was prospectively registered. URL: https://register.clinicaltrials.gov/prs/app/action/ViewOrUnrelease?uid=U0004GED&ts=22&sid=S000BR5D&cx=t6mc14

A novel multi‐slice electromagnetic field‐circuit coupling method for transient computation of long‐distance gas‐insulated transmission lines

AbstractAccurate calculation of short‐circuit electromagnetic force is crucial for both mechanical strength check and the optimal design of gas‐insulated transmission lines (GIL). Since the full 3D numerical simulation method is highly time‐consuming, a novel lightweight 2D multi‐slice electromagnetic field‐circuit coupled method for computing transient electromagnetic force is proposed, where appropriate port voltage degrees of freedom (DoFs) are introduced for the solid GIL conductor terminals. When the transient magnetic field equations are combined with the constraint equations of circuit part, including nodal voltage and loop current DoFs, a direct field‐circuit coupling scheme is thus derived. The proposed method can simultaneously consider the effect of interphase‐shunts and ground wires, as well as the skin effect and proximity effect. It can accurately capture the transient electromagnetic characteristics of GIL spanning from several to tens of kilometers under different short‐circuit conditions. The transient electromagnetic forces, as well as the induced voltages and currents of the enclosure, are analysed by the proposed method for both single‐phase and three‐phase enclosed GIL under various short‐circuit conditions. The proposed method has the advantages of high accuracy and lightweight computational cost, and thus it is also suitable for conducting important simulation tasks such as mechanical strength checks during the design optimisation phase of long‐distance GIL.

Personnel Training for Common Facility Management Issues in Thermal-Energy-Storage Chiller Plant using a Serious 3D Game

Background This study introduces an innovative personnel training method for facility management and maintenance of Thermal-Energy-Storage (TES) chiller plants using a serious 3D game. Training games can improve the decision-making of personnel where they can learn to deal with management of TES chiller plants in the context of this study in an active learning approach. Intervention The research aims to investigate the effectiveness of an immersive learning experience with computerized simulation and synthetic task environments as a training game for facility managers. The serious 3D game adopts a first-person perspective, allowing players to assume the role of a facility manager and actively learn how to address maintenance issues commonly encountered in chiller plants. Methods The study implemented a first-person-based serious 3D game centered around a TES chiller plant. Participants, in the role of facility managers, engaged with the game and followed instructions to gain practical knowledge in managing maintenance issues within a controlled and simulated setting. Results The findings demonstrate increased engagement and interest among personnel when learning how to manage chiller plant issues within a serious 3D game environment. Notably, personnel experienced reduced pressure compared to real-life scenarios, as they navigated the challenges without the presence of a supervisor. Limitations The study’s limitations include a higher proportion of male participants in the qualitative content analysis, which may affect the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the absence of a control group limits the ability to make direct comparisons with traditional training methods. Conclusion The results suggest that serious 3D games hold potential as an effective training tool for facility management and maintenance personnel. By engaging in active training within simulated and synthetic task environments, personnel can enhance their skills and decision-making capabilities. However, further research with a more diverse participant sample and a control group is warranted to fully evaluate the effectiveness of this innovative personnel training approach.

Large-Scale Molecular Dynamics Simulation Based on Heterogeneous Many-Core Architecture.

As the application of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations continues to evolve, the demand for accelerating large-scale simulation systems and handling of enormous simulation tasks is steadily increasing. We propose a parallel acceleration method for large-scale MD simulations based on Sunway heterogeneous many-core processors. This method integrates task scheduling, simulation calculations, and data storage, effectively tackling issues related to large-scale simulations and numerous simulation tasks. The task scheduling strategy flexibly handles tasks on various scales and enables parallel execution of multiple tasks. During the simulation calculations, we ported GROMACS to the Sunway architecture and accelerated the calculation of short-range forces through a heterogeneous processor. Our method achieves approximately 10-fold acceleration and 90% scalability when executing a single simulation task. When handling numerous simulation tasks, our method achieves parallel execution of all of the tasks with 90% scalability. By employing our method, we carried out 50 ns simulations on over 3000 distinct conotoxin structures individually within just 5 h. Additionally, we evaluated more than 200 protein-ligand complexes, and the simulation efficiency significantly exceeded that of midsized to small GPU clusters.

Validation of a Simulation Model for Robotic Myomectomy

Study ObjectiveSeveral simulation models have been evaluated for gynecologic procedures such as hysterectomy, but there are limited published data for myomectomy. This study aimed to assess the validity of a low-cost robotic myomectomy model for surgical simulation training. DesignProspective cohort simulation study. SettingSurgical simulation lab. ParticipantsTwelve obstetrics and gynecology residents and four fellowship-trained minimally invasive gynecologic surgeons were recruited for a 3:1 novice-to-expert ratio. InterventionsA robotic myomectomy simulation model was constructed using <$5 worth of materials: a foam cylinder, felt, a stress ball, bandage wrap, and multipurpose sealing wrap. Participants performed a simulation task involving two steps: fibroid enucleation and hysterotomy repair. Video recorded performances were timed and scored by two blinded reviewers using the validated Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills (GEARS) scale (5-25 points) and a modified GEARS scale (5-40 points), which adds three novel domains specific to robotic myomectomy. Performance was also scored using predefined task errors. Participants completed a post-task questionnaire assessing the model's realism and utility. Measurements and Main ResultsMedian task completion time was shorter for experts compared to novices (9.7 vs. 24.6 minutes, P=.001). Experts scored higher than novices on both the GEARS scale (median 23 vs. 12, P=.004) and modified GEARS scale (36 vs. 20, P=.004). Experts made fewer task errors than novices (median 15.5 vs. 37.5, P=.034). For interrater reliability of scoring, the intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated to be 0.91 for the GEARS assessment, 0.93 for the modified GEARS assessment, and 0.60 for task errors. Using the contrasting groups method, the passing mark for the simulation task was set to a minimum modified GEARS score of 28 and a maximum of 28 errors. Most participants agreed that the model was realistic (62.5%) and useful for training (93.8%). ConclusionWe have demonstrated evidence supporting the validity of a low-cost robotic myomectomy model. This simulation model and the performance assessments developed in this study provide further educational tools for robotic myomectomy training.

Probabilistic Model-Based Reinforcement Learning Unmanned Surface Vehicles Using Local Update Sparse Spectrum Approximation

This article focuses on the computational efficiency of probabilistic model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) in unmanned surface vehicles (USV) under unforeseeable and unobservable external disturbances. A novel MBRL approach, local update spectrum probabilistic model predictive control (LUSPMPC) is proposed to fully release the superiority of the probabilistic model approximated in the frequency domain in computational efficiency while mitigating its risk of overfitting during the learning procedure. It employs a local update strategy to relieve the violation of Bochner's theory, and a frequency clipping trick to encourage the approximated model to focus on the features in the low-frequency domain. Evaluated by the position-keeping task in a real USV data-driven simulation, LUSPMPC shows its significant advantages in computational efficiency while achieving better learning capability, generalization capability and control performances in a wide range of sparse scales compared with the baseline MBRL approaches that approximate their models in sample space and frequency domain, and therefore becomes an appealing solution for MBRL USV system defending against rapidly changing ocean disturbances.

Enhancing Overt and Covert Attention Using a Real-Time Neurofeedback Game With Consumer-Grade EEG

Neurofeedback training is emerging as a promising tool for cognitive enhancement in healthy as well as cognitive-deficit patients. In this paper, we propose the design of a real-time neurofeedback game using a consumer-grade wireless Electroencephalography (EEG) system and examine its efficacy in enhancing overt and covert attention abilities for healthy individuals. The game uses a simulated car navigation task, in which a car is navigated using the attention level of the player. A total of twenty-three healthy subjects participated in four sessions of neurofeedback training. The effectiveness of the proposed neurofeedback game is evaluated using attention scores based on the Sample entropy of EEG signals, beta-to-(alpha + theta) ratio, and the time taken for completing the game. The variations in covert attention are assessed by introducing visual distractions when the player navigates the car and quantified using changes in the attention score and the time taken for restoring the initial attention level. The attention score significantly improved from the first session to the final session by 22.64% and 21.43% for overt attention and covert attention tasks, respectively. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed neurofeedback game is an effective tool for enhancing overt and covert attention skills in healthy individuals.

Accreditation of analogue quantum simulators

We present an accreditation protocol for analogue, i.e., continuous-time, quantum simulators. For a given simulation task, it provides an upper bound on the variation distance between the probability distributions at the output of an erroneous and error-free analogue quantum simulator. As its overheads are independent of the size and nature of the simulation, the protocol is ready for immediate usage and practical for the long term. It builds on the recent theoretical advances of strongly universal Hamiltonians and quantum accreditation as well as experimental progress toward the realization of programmable hybrid analogue-digital quantum simulators.

Establishment of a Geriatric Nursing Curriculum with Human Caring by Situational Simulation

It is generally accepted that human caring is the essence of nursing work and the foundation of nursing quality. However, nurses’ human caring ability does not currently adapt well to the needs of patients and hospital work. The main purpose of this study is to build a humanistic care geriatric nursing course in order to enhance the humanistic care ability of nursing students, thereby improving patient satisfaction and service quality. An expert panel with 12 academics and scholars was applied as a method to review the course syllabus. The result presented that the curriculum contains eight common diseases and problems of the elderly are selected, and nursing positions are integrated into situational tasks with caring factors. Love is taken as the essence of the roles of Standardized Patients, nurses, doctors, teachers and students to design a transpersonal care field constructed of loving interactions to realize transpersonal human caring. Twenty-two situations are created with the characteristics of typical simulated situation tasks to integrate human caring into a geriatric nursing curriculum. The establishment of a geriatric nursing curriculum that includes human caring by simulating certain situations would be effectively applied to enhance students’ human caring ability in nursing vocational College.

A Real-Time Measurement Model of Attention-Allocation Level and Its Application in Simulated SPO Task

Most human-caused flight accidents can be attributed to a pilot’s attention deficit and monitoring errors. Accordingly, pilots’ attention allocation is strongly related to their task performance. This study is aimed at analyzing pilots’ fixation characteristics and attention-allocation levels. First, we proposed a model for measuring attention-allocation level based on the salience, effort, expectancy, and value (SEEV) model. Second, a low-fidelity single-pilot operation (SPO) cockpit environment was constructed, and 20 pilots were recruited for an experiment to compare their fixation characteristics between SPO and double-pilot operation (DPO) scenarios. The results showed slight differences in the attention levels allocated by SPO and DPO pilots under a scenario of one-engine failure. It concluded that Human-centered flight deck design can enhance a pilot’s attention allocation level. These findings can be used to optimize future flight deck designing and flight training for improving pilot’s task performance.

Exploring the Benefits of a Simulator-Based Emergency Braking Exercise with Novice Teen Drivers

This exploratory study investigated whether using the Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive driving simulator exercise improved the understanding and performance of emergency braking among novice teen drivers. Seventy-one high school driver education students (aged 15–19) participated. All of the teens completed the Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive exercise driving simulator task and then an on-road ABS exercise in a driver’s education vehicle; there was no control group. Students’ ability to complete the simulator-based emergency braking task increased from an initial passing rate of only 18.3% to a maximum of 81.7% by the end of the simulation exercise. A positive trend was observed over successive simulator trials, with the linear effect explaining 51.1% of the variance in emergency stopping “pass” rates using the simulator task. In addition, participants who passed more trials during the Pedals Emergency Stop© simulator exercise were 12.3% more likely to fully activate the ABS during the on-road emergency stop activity using the driver’s education vehicle. Post-study surveys revealed that 95% of the participants improved their understanding of ABS as a result of the simulation-based training, and 98% felt there was a positive impact from the driving simulation exercise on their real-world emergency braking capabilities. Participants highly endorsed the Pedals Emergency Stop© exercise for ABS education and refresher training, with a rating of 4.7 out of 5. This study emphasizes the potential benefits of incorporating simulator-based exercises into driver education and training, with the long-term goal of promoting safe driving behaviors and outcomes.

Comparing LLMs for Prompt-Enhanced ACT-R and Soar Model Development: A Case Study in Cognitive Simulation

This paper presents experiments on using ChatGPT4 and Google Bard to create ACT-R and Soar models. The study involves two simulated cognitive tasks, where ChatGPT4 and Google Bard (Large Language Models, LLMs) serve as conversational interfaces within the ACT-R and Soar framework development environments. The first task involves creating an intelligent driving model using ACT-R with motor and perceptual behavior and can further interact with an unmodified interface. The second task evaluates the development of educational skills using Soar. Prompts were designed to represent cognitive operations and actions, including providing context, asking perception-related questions, decision-making scenarios, and evaluating the system's responses, and they were iteratively refined based on model behavior evaluation. Results demonstrate the potential of using LLMs to serve as interactive interfaces to develop ACT-R and Soar models within a human-in-the-loop model development process. We documented the mistakes LLMs made during this integration and provided corresponding resolutions when adopting this modeling approach. Furthermore, we presented a framework of prompt patterns that maximizes LLMs interaction for artificial cognitive architectures.

Development of performance and learning rate evaluation models in robot-assisted surgery using electroencephalography and eye-tracking

The existing performance evaluation methods in robot-assisted surgery (RAS) are mainly subjective, costly, and affected by shortcomings such as the inconsistency of results and dependency on the raters’ opinions. The aim of this study was to develop models for an objective evaluation of performance and rate of learning RAS skills while practicing surgical simulator tasks. The electroencephalogram (EEG) and eye-tracking data were recorded from 26 subjects while performing Tubes, Suture Sponge, and Dots and Needles tasks. Performance scores were generated by the simulator program. The functional brain networks were extracted using EEG data and coherence analysis. Then these networks, along with community detection analysis, facilitated the extraction of average search information and average temporal flexibility features at 21 Brodmann areas (BA) and four band frequencies. Twelve eye-tracking features were extracted and used to develop linear random intercept models for performance evaluation and multivariate linear regression models for the evaluation of the learning rate. Results showed that subject-wise standardization of features improved the R2 of the models. Average pupil diameter and rate of saccade were associated with performance in the Tubes task (multivariate analysis; p-value = 0.01 and p-value = 0.04, respectively). Entropy of pupil diameter was associated with performance in Dots and Needles task (multivariate analysis; p-value = 0.01). Average temporal flexibility and search information in several BAs and band frequencies were associated with performance and rate of learning. The models may be used to objectify performance and learning rate evaluation in RAS once validated with a broader sample size and tasks.

Comparing movement-related cortical potential between real and simulated movement tasks from an ecological validity perspective.

Concerns regarding the ecological validity of movement-related cortical potential (MRCP) experimental tasks that are related to motor learning have recently been growing. Therefore, we compared MRCP during real movement task (RMT) and simulated movement task (SMT) from an ecological validity perspective. The participants performed both RMT and SMT, and MRCP were measured using electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG was based on the 10-20 method, with electrodes placed in the motor cortex (C3 and C4) and supplementary motor cortex (FCz [between Fz and Cz] and Cz) areas. This experiment examined the MRCP using Bereitschaftspotential (BP) and negative slope (NS') onset times, and BP, NS', and motor potential (MP) amplitudes during the task. The results revealed that the SMT exhibited later BP and NS' onset times and smaller BP, NS', and MP amplitudes than the RMT. Furthermore, in RMT, the onset time of MRCP was delayed, and the amplitude of MRCP was smaller in the second half of the 200 times task than in the first half, whereas in SMT, there was no change in onset time and amplitude. The SMT showed a different MRCP than the RMT, suggesting that the ecological validity of the task should be fully considered when investigating the cortical activity associated with motor skill learning using MRCP. Ecological validity of the study should be fully considered when investigating the cortical activity associated with motor skill learning using MRCP. Moreover, it is important to understand the differences between the two methods when applied clinically.