Task Steps Research Articles

Anticipatory action planning for stepping onto competing potential targets.

The brain plans an anticipatory action for performing tasks successfully and effortlessly even if there are multiple possible options. There is increasing evidence that, when multiple actions are possible, the brain considers two factors when planning an anticipatory action—the probabilistic value and the action cost for each potential action. When the action involves maintaining upright balance, such as standing, stepping, or walking, the action cost for maintaining postural stability could be considered dominantly. We addressed this issue by using a “go-before-you-know” task to step onto a target on the floor. In this task, two potential targets were located on the medial or lateral side of the stepping foot, and the true target was cued only after participants shifted their loads to leave that foot. Participants initiated their stepping actions without knowing which of the potential targets would be the true one. The results showed that, for the majority of participants, lateral displacements of the center of pressure (COP) with two potential targets were similar to those when a single target exists on the individual’s medial side. Given that mediolateral postural stability became more destabilized with stepping onto the medial target than stepping onto the lateral target, they were likely to plan their mediolateral components of the postural adjustments for the worst-case scenario (i.e., falling). Additionally, posterior COP movements with two potential targets became smaller than those with a single target, suggesting an effort to create extra time to determine the true target and to adjust the swing foot. Based on these findings, we concluded that action costs for maintaining postural stability were considered dominantly for planning an anticipatory action to accomplish a stepping task successfully while ensuring upright balance.

Order-Constrained Representation Learning for Instructional Video Prediction

In this paper, we propose a weakly-supervised approach called Order-Constrained Representation Learning (OCRL) to predict future actions from instructional videos by observing incomplete steps of actions. Most conventional methods focus on predicting actions based on partially observed video frames, which mainly study low-level semantics such as motion consistency. Unlike performing a single action, completing a task in an instructional video usually requires several steps of action and longer periods. Motivated by the fact that the order of action steps is key to learning task semantics, we develop a new frame of contrastive loss, called StepNCE, to integrate the shared semantic information between step order and task semantics under the framework of the memory bank-based momentum-updating algorithm. Specifically, we learn the video representations from step order-rearranged trimmed video clips based on the proposed task-consistency rule and order-consistency rule. Our StepNCE loss can be used to pre-train a video feature encoder, which is then fine-tuned to carry out the instructional video prediction task. Our approach digs deeper into the sequential logic between different action steps with respect to a certain task, which is able to promote the video understanding methods to a new semantic level. We evaluate our method on five popular instructional video and action prediction datasets: COIN, CrossTask, UT-Interaction, BIT-Interaction, and ActivityNet v1.2, and the results show that our approach gains improvements from conventional prediction methods.

Users Maintain Task Accuracy and Gait Characteristics During Missed Exoskeleton Actuations Through Adaptations In Joint Kinematics.

In operational settings, lower-limb active exoskeletons may experience errors, where an actuation that should be present is missed. These missed actuations may impact users' trust in the system and the adapted human-exoskeleton coordination strategies. In this study, we introduced pseudorandom catch trials, in which an assistive exoskeleton torque was not applied, to understand the immediate responses to missed actuations and how users' internal models to an exoskeleton adapt upon repeated exposure to missed actuations. Participants (N = 15) were instructed to complete a stepping task while wearing a bilateral powered ankle exoskeleton. Human-exoskeleton coordination and trust were inferred from task performance (step accuracy), step characteristics (step length and width), and joint kinematics at selected peak locations of the lower limb. Step characteristics and task accuracy were not impacted by the loss of exoskeleton torque as hip flexion was modulated to support completing the stepping task during catch trials, which supports an impacted human-exoskeleton coordination. Reductions in ankle plantarflexion during catch trials suggest user adaptation to the exoskeleton. Trust was not impacted by catch trials, as there were no significant differences in task performance or gait characteristics between earlier and later strides. Understanding the interactions between human-exoskeleton coordination, task accuracy, and step characteristics will support development of exoskeleton controllers for non-ideal operational settings.

The Effects of Face Coverings on Perceived Exertion and Attention Allocation during a Stepping Task.

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the entire world from lockdowns to various recommended restrictions including social distancing and wearing face coverings. In a safe environment, cardiovascular exercise is important for both physical health and mental health. The current study examined the effects of face coverings on rating of perceived exertion and attention allocation during an exertive stepping task. Participants completed a stepping task with a weighted vest at 20% of their bodyweight until volitional fatigue with a face covering (n = 23) or without a face covering (n = 31). Results revealed a non-significant difference (p = 0.25) in the duration of the stepping task (in seconds) between the no face covering (M = 455.81, SD = 289.77) and face covering (M = 547.83, SD = 285.93) conditions. Results indicated increases in perceived exertion (p < 0.001) and heart rate (p < 0.001) as time progressed across the four time points (i.e., 30 s, 1/3 time to exhaustion, 2/3 time to exhaustion, and exhaustion) in both conditions. No significant differences were found between the conditions for RPE (p = 0.09) and heart rate (p = 0.50). Participants wearing a face covering were more internally focused across the duration of the stepping task (p = 0.05). This study has relevance for applied practitioners implementing physical activity interventions that require face coverings.

Alteration of quadriceps muscle activity during functional step tasks after extended sitting session

BackgroundProlonged sitting with high knee flexion is a common activity that may affect patellofemoral joint compression and quadriceps length. Exploring the quadriceps activation after sitting may help to explain the mechanism underlying muscle changes and the resulting patellofemoral pain. ObjectivesTo examine changes in quadriceps activity after prolonged sitting in cross-legged sitting, side-sitting, and sitting on a chair. DesignLaboratory observational study. MethodThirty healthy women participated and were randomly allocated to three groups of different sitting positions (n = 10/group). Electromyography (EMG) of the vastus medialis (VM), rectus femoris (RF), and vastus lateralis (VL) was performed before and after 15 min after sitting. EMG was conducted during step-up and step-down tests and was reported as %MVIC. The results were analysed using Wilcoxon signed-rank test and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. ResultsVM activity and EMG activity during the step-down test after sitting increased significantly in the cross-legged group (p = 0.01). Sitting postures significantly influenced (p = 0.02) muscle activity changes in the VL and VM during the step-up test. Pairwise comparisons revealed significant differences between the cross-legged sitting and sitting on a chair groups. ConclusionsProlonged cross-legged sitting and side-sitting caused changes in VM and VL activity during step tasks in healthy young women. After cross-legged sitting, the VM exhibited a significantly higher activity in descending control, and changes in VM and VL activity increased significantly during the step-up task. Increased VM and VL activation possibly controls the patellofemoral joint. Therefore, they may fatigue more easily when many step tasks or squatting exercises are performed.

Automatic detection of A-phase onsets based on convolutional neural networks

The electroencephalogram (EEG) conveys information related to different sleep processes. One of these processes is the Cyclic Alternating Pattern (CAP), which is correlated with sleep instability. CAP is composed of A-phases, which are short recurrent modifications to the EEG fluctuations that characterize the sleep stages. A-phase annotation is performed by trained clinicians by visual EEG inspection, thus this is a weary and time-consuming task. A-phase annotation is a three step task: 1) localization, 2) delineation and 3) categorization. We propose to resolve the first step, to identify the A-phase location by training a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) based on the A-phase clinical description: an abrupt modification of the basal EEG fluctuations. Whole night EEG recordings of nine healthy subjects were used in this study. As first step, a CNN was trained and tested with the Leave-One-Out scheme in a balanced dataset of 4s EEG segments where an A-phase onset was or was not present. As a second step, the trained CNNs were used to identify A-phase onsets across the whole night recording. The results showed an accuracy performance of 93%, sensitivity of 94% and specificity of 91% for the balanced set. On the whole recording, the performance was: F-score of 58%, recall of 70% and precision of 49%. In conclusion, we present a simple fully automatic method to localize the onset of A-phases in EEG signals. It is based on the spectral characteristics of the EEG signal which define the A-phases and could be part of more complex systems.

Flexor digitorum brevis utilizes elastic strain energy to contribute to both work generation and energy absorption at the foot.

ABSTRACTThe central nervous system utilizes tendon compliance of the intrinsic foot muscles to aid the foot's arch spring, storing and returning energy in its tendinous tissues. Recently, the intrinsic foot muscles have been shown to adapt their energetic contributions during a variety of locomotor tasks to fulfil centre of mass work demands. However, the mechanism by which the small intrinsic foot muscles are able to make versatile energetic contributions remains unknown. Therefore, we examined the muscle–tendon dynamics of the flexor digitorum brevis during stepping, jumping and landing tasks to see whether the central nervous system regulates muscle activation magnitude and timing to enable energy storage and return to enhance energetic contributions. In step-ups and jumps, energy was stored in the tendinous tissue during arch compression; during arch recoil, the fascicles shortened at a slower rate than the tendinous tissues while the foot generated energy. In step-downs and landings, the tendinous tissues elongated more and at greater rates than the fascicles during arch compression while the foot absorbed energy. These results indicate that the central nervous system utilizes arch compression to store elastic energy in the tendinous tissues of the intrinsic foot muscles to add or remove mechanical energy when the body accelerates or decelerates. This study provides evidence for an adaptive mechanism to enable the foot's energetic versatility and further indicates the value of tendon compliance in distal lower limb muscle–tendon units in locomotion.

Multi-robot collaborative radioactive source search based on particle fusion and adaptive step size

Multi-robot with nuclear radiation detectors plays a key role in nuclear safety and emergency disposal of radioactive contamination. However, the existing multi-robot radioactive source search process requires a large amount of computation, resulting in low search efficiency. This paper proposes a collaborative search method for unknown radioactive source through multi-robot information fusion and free energy strategy with adaptive step size. We use the cognitive difference principle to selectively fuse the measurement information of other robots to obtain a preliminary estimate of the probability distribution of radioactive source. Then, the multiple robots conduct particle fusion according to preset conditions to obtain accurate parameters of the radioactive source. Lastly, all of the robots cooperate to complete the search task of unknown radioactive source step by step through a free energy strategy with adaptive step size. Experimental results show that the search success rate of the proposed algorithm is improved to more than 95% with an efficient search.

The Effects of Heart Rate Monitoring on Ratings of Perceived Exertion and Attention Allocation in Individuals of Varying Fitness Levels.

There has been a rapid increase in the use of wearable technology-based physical activity trackers. Most of these physical activity trackers include tracking and displaying the individual's heart rate (HR). There is little known about how HR monitoring influences the perception of exertion and attention allocation. Shifting attentional focus toward the body (association), such as monitoring HR, instead of environmental stimuli (dissociation) may increase one's perceived level of exertion. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of HR monitoring on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and attention allocation during an exertive stepping task in individuals of varying fitness levels. The YMCA stepping task normative values determined fitness levels. For the experimental condition, participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions (i.e., HR monitoring or control) and completed a stepping task with a weighted vest at 20% of their bodyweight. HR, RPE, and attention allocation were collected at 30-s intervals. Performing the stepping task resulted in a gradual increase of HR and RPE along with a shift from dissociative to associative attention across all conditions. Monitoring one's HR during the task resulted in more dissociative attention allocation, however, no RPE differences were reported between the two conditions. Unfit individuals reported lower levels of RPE during the first time point compared to fit individuals despite having higher HR throughout the task. The results of this study have relevance for applied practitioners implementing physical activity interventions with individuals who monitor their HR.

Stronger Prejudices Are Associated With Decreased Model-Based Control.

Background: Prejudices against minorities can be understood as habitually negative evaluations that are kept in spite of evidence to the contrary. Therefore, individuals with strong prejudices might be dominated by habitual or “automatic” reactions at the expense of more controlled reactions. Computational theories suggest individual differences in the balance between habitual/model-free and deliberative/model-based decision-making.Methods: 127 subjects performed the two Step task and completed the blatant and subtle prejudice scale.Results: By using analyses of choices and reaction times in combination with computational modeling, subjects with stronger blatant prejudices showed a shift away from model-based control. There was no association between these decision-making processes and subtle prejudices.Conclusion: These results support the idea that blatant prejudices toward minorities are related to a relative dominance of habitual decision-making. This finding has important implications for developing interventions that target to change prejudices across societies.

Integrated inverted pendulum and whole-body control design for bipedal robot with foot slip

Low-friction ground surfaces present a particular challenge for control of bipedal walking robots. The onset of foot slip changes the robot dynamics and the commonly designed walking controllers assuming non-slip conditions cannot maintain balance and prevent the walker from falling. We present a two-level robot controller for bipedal walker under foot slip. The high-level control is built on a two-mass linear inverted pendulum (TMLIP) model to generate the appropriate step location such that the robot walker maintains dynamic balance through multiple planned steps. The specified stepping tasks are fed to the low-level control that is based on a whole-body operational space (WBOS) framework. The WBOS controller uses the dynamic model of the multi-link bipedal walker and generates joint torques to maintain balance and follow the given stepping task in the presence of foot slip. Performance of the integrated TMLIP-WBOS control algorithm is demonstrated through extensive simulation studies of a 5-link robotic walker.

Class-Incremental Semantic Segmentation of Aerial Images via Pixel-Level Feature Generation and Task-Wise Distillation

Deep neural networks achieve significant progress in semantic segmentation but still suffer from the catastrophic forgetting problem, i.e., networks will forget old classes as they learn new ones. In this article, we propose an effective class-incremental segmentation framework without storing old data. Specifically, to alleviate the issue of catastrophic forgetting, we present two important modules, i.e., the Pixel-level Feature Generation (PFG) module, and the Task-wise Knowledge distillation (TKD) module. The PFG module is designed to constantly generate any number of features of the old classes to keep the old memory. The PFG module is the first attempt to use the generative method in class-incremental segmentation of aerial images, and it abandons the previous image generation approach but to generate pixel-level features, which is more suitable for the segmentation task. Meanwhile, the proposed TKD module is specially designed for class incremental tasks, and it only compares classes in the same learning step (task), thus avoiding the squeezing of new classes to old classes when the output is normalized (softmax), making distillation more effective. Sufficient experiments show that our method is remarkably effective and achieves more than 4.5% gains compared with state-of-the-art methods, and more than 13% compared with baselines, on all learning conditions. The ablation studies show that the PFG module and the TKD module are both indispensables. Besides, the proposed framework can be well combined with any existing class incremental learning method to achieve better performance.

The Effect of Low-Intensity Daily Walking Activity on Cognitive and Brain Function in Older Adults

Physical activity is an effective intervention to prevent or delay cognitive decline and dementia in older adults; however, many have difficulty achieving recommended moderate- to vigorous-intensity guidelines. This study examined the impact of low-intensity daily walking activity on executive cognitive and brain function in 66 older adults (mean age=67.26 ; SD=6.04). Daily walking activity was measured using a step activity monitor and brain function was assessed using functional magnetic resonance imaging during the Flanker task. Analyses included whole and region of interest (ROI) in the right middle frontal gyrus (RMFG), occipital cortex (OCC) and anterior cingulate (ACC). Partial correlations were performed between step activity, behavioral performance, and ROI activation, adjusting for age and education. Most of the step activity was in the low-intensity range. No associations were observed between step activity and task performance (p>.05). Task-related activation occurred in the RMFG, lateral OCC and paracingulate (p<.01). Increased activation in the RMFG was associated with greater amount r(62)=.390, p=.001, duration r(62)=.309, p=.013 and frequency r(62)=.327, p=.007 of step activity. Stratification by sex revealed a positive association between amount of step activity and RMFG activation in women r(44)= .360, p=.014, but not men. Whole brain correlation revealed that amount of step activity was positively associated with precuneus activation (p<.01), an area impacted early in Alzheimer’s disease. These results support the benefits of low intensity daily walking activity on prefrontal function in older adults and suggest the importance of designing attainable and sustainable physical activity interventions to promote brain health in older adults.

The Effect of Low-Intensity Daily Walking Activity on Cognitive and Brain Function in Older Adults

Physical activity is an effective intervention to prevent or delay cognitive decline and dementia in older adults; however, many have difficulty achieving recommended moderate- to vigorous-intensity guidelines. This study examined the impact of low-intensity daily walking activity on executive cognitive and brain function in 66 older adults (mean age=67.26 ; SD=6.04). Daily walking activity was measured using a step activity monitor and brain function was assessed using functional magnetic resonance imaging during the Flanker task. Analyses included whole and region of interest (ROI) in the right middle frontal gyrus (RMFG), occipital cortex (OCC) and anterior cingulate (ACC). Partial correlations were performed between step activity, behavioral performance, and ROI activation, adjusting for age and education. Most of the step activity was in the low-intensity range. No associations were observed between step activity and task performance (p>.05). Task-related activation occurred in the RMFG, lateral OCC and paracingulate (p<.01). Increased activation in the RMFG was associated with greater amount r(62)=.390, p=.001, duration r(62)=.309, p=.013 and frequency r(62)=.327, p=.007 of step activity. Stratification by sex revealed a positive association between amount of step activity and RMFG activation in women r(44)= .360, p=.014, but not men. Whole brain correlation revealed that amount of step activity was positively associated with precuneus activation (p<.01), an area impacted early in Alzheimer’s disease. These results support the benefits of low intensity daily walking activity on prefrontal function in older adults and suggest the importance of designing attainable and sustainable physical activity interventions to promote brain health in older adults.

Does height-induced threat modulate shortening of reaction times induced by a loud stimulus in a lateral stepping and a wrist extension task?

The StartReact (SR) effect is the accelerated release of a prepared movement when a startling acoustic stimulus is presented at the time of the imperative stimulus (IS). SR paradigms have been used to study defective control of balance and gait in people with neurological conditions, but differences in emotional state (e.g. fear of failure) may be a potential confounder when comparing patients to healthy subjects. In this study, we aimed to gain insight in the effects of postural threat on the SR effect by manipulating surface height during a postural (lateral step) task and a non-postural (wrist extension) task. Eleven healthy participants performed a lateral step perpendicular to the platform edge, and 19 participants performed a wrist extension task while standing at the platform edge. Participants initiated the movement as fast as possible in response to an IS that varied in intensity across trials (80dB to 121dB) at both low and high platform height (3.2m). For the lateral step task, we determined anticipatory postural adjustments (APA) and step onset latencies. For the wrist extension task, muscle onset latencies were determined. We used Wilcoxon signed-rank tests on the relative onset latencies between both heights, to identify whether the effect of height was different for IS intensities between 103 and 118dB compared to 121dB. For both tasks, onset latencies were significantly shortened at 121dB compared to 80dB, regardless of height. In the lateral step task, the effect of height was larger at 112dB compared to 121dB. The absolute onset latencies showed that at 112dB there was no such stimulus intensity effect at high as seen at low surface height. In the wrist extension task, no differential effects of height could be demonstrated across IS intensities. Postural threat had a significant, yet modest effect on shortening of RTs induced by a loud IS, with a mere 3dB difference between standing on high versus low surface height. Interestingly, this effect of height was specific to the postural (i.e. lateral stepping) task, as no such differences could be demonstrated in the wrist extension task. This presumably reflects more cautious execution of the lateral step task when standing on height. The present findings suggest that applying stimuli of sufficiently high intensity (≥115dB) appears to neutralize potential differences in emotional state when studying SR effects.

Post-activation performance enhancement after inclusion of opponent versus no opponent during isoinertial crossover step exercise: A randomized crossover trial

This study sought to determine whether the inclusion of an opponent on an isoinertial crossover step task influenced the post-activation response and power production. Twenty adult male team-sports athletes participated in a randomized crossover trial. We used a novel design in which the performance of an isoinertial flywheel exercise was tested with or without the inclusion of sport-specific constraints (inclusion of an opponent vs. no opponent) in one of the two sequences (sequence one: constraint manipulation followed by no constraint manipulation; and sequence two: no constraint manipulation followed by constraint manipulation). Maximal power was recorded during exercise; then the coefficient of variation of maximal power was estimated. Post-activation responses were measured using unilateral jump height and change-of-direction time. Also, ankle dorsiflexion range of motion was measured. The use of an isoinertial flywheel resulted in improved ankle dorsiflexion and the capacity to repeat change-of-direction. Furthermore, the inclusion of an opponent was associated with a higher variability of the power output in the concentric phase of the movement. Importantly, performing the crossover step task in front of an opponent was also linked to a positive correlation between unilateral countermovement jump and power output. We conclude that the inclusion of typical constraints of the performance environment may have induced movement adaptations to accommodate the unpredictability associated with the actions of the opponent.

Visual attention and inhibitory control in children, teenagers and adults with autism without intellectual disability: results of oculomotor tasks from a 2-year longitudinal follow-up study (InFoR)

BackgroundInhibitory control and attention processing atypicalities are implicated in various diseases, including autism spectrum disorders (ASD). These cognitive functions can be tested by using visually guided saccade-based paradigms in children, adolescents and adults to determine the time course of such disorders.MethodsIn this study, using Gap, Step, Overlap and Antisaccade tasks, we analyzed the oculomotor behavior of 82 children, teenagers and adults with high functioning ASD and their peer typically developing (TD) controls in a two-year follow-up study under the auspices of the InFoR-Autism project. Analysis of correlations between oculomotors task measurements and diagnostic assessment of attentional (ADHD-RS and ADHD comorbidity indices) and executive functioning (BRIEF scales) were conducted in order to evaluate their relationship with the oculomotor performance of participants with ASD.ResultsAs indicated by the presence of a Gap and Overlap effects in all age groups, the oculomotor performances of ASD participants showed a preserved capability in overt attention switching. In contrast, the difference in performances of ASD participants in the Antisaccade task, compared to their TD peers, indicated an atypical development of inhibition and executive functions. From correlation analysis between our oculomotor data and ADHD comorbidity index, and scores of attention and executive function difficulties, our findings support the hypothesis that a specific dysfunction of inhibition skills occurs in ASD participants that is independent of the presence of ADHD comorbidity.LimitationsThese include the relatively small sample size of the ASD group over the study’s two-year period, the absence of an ADHD-only control group and the evaluation of a TD control group solely at the study’s inception.ConclusionsChildren and teenagers with ASD have greater difficulty in attention switching and inhibiting prepotent stimuli. Adults with ASD can overcome these difficulties, but, similar to teenagers and children with ASD, they make more erroneous and anticipatory saccades and display a greater trial-to-trial variability in all oculomotor tasks compared to their peers. Our results are indicative of a developmental delay in the maturation of executive and attentional functioning in ASD and of a specific impairment in inhibitory control.

Cortical activation during gait adaptability in people with Parkinson’s disease

BackgroundPeople with Parkinson’s disease (PD) have difficulties adapting their gait. While underlying neural mechanisms involving the prefrontal cortex (PFC) have been studied across various complex walking tasks, less is known about the premotor cortex (PMC) and supplementary motor area (SMA), key cortical regions for motor planning. This study compared frontal cortical regions activation patterns using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), between people with PD and healthy controls (HC) during gait adaptability tasks. MethodsForty-nine people with PD (mean (SD) age: 69.5 (7.9) years) and 21 HC (69.0 (5.9) years) completed a simple walk and three randomly presented gait adaptability tasks: (i) stepping on targets, (ii) avoiding obstacles and (iii) negotiating both targets and obstacles. Cortical activity in the dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC), SMA and PMC were recorded using fNIRS. Step length, velocity and accuracy and cortical activity were contrasted between the groups and walking conditions. ResultsCompared with the HC, the PD group exhibited greater PMC activation and walked significantly slower and took shorter steps in all conditions. A statistically significant group by condition interaction indicated an increase in DLPFC cortical activation in the HC participants when undertaking the obstacle avoidance task compared with the simple walk but no increase in cortical activation in the PD group when undergoing this more challenging gait task. ConclusionsOur findings suggest people with PD have little or no DLPFC, SMA and PMC capacity beyond what they need for simple walking and in consequence need to slow their gait velocity to meet the demands of target stepping and obstacle avoidance tasks. Such behavioral and neural patterns appear consistent with concepts of compensatory over-activation and capacity limitation.

Motor sequence learning in a goal-directed stepping task in persons with multiple sclerosis: a pilot study.

Motor sequence learning in persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) and healthy controls (HC) under implicit or explicit learning conditions has not yet been investigated in a stepping task. Given the prevalent cognitive and mobility impairments in pwMS, this is important in order to understand motor learning processes and optimize rehabilitation strategies. Nineteen pwMS (the Expanded Disability Status Scale=3.4 ± 1.2) and 18 HC performed a modified serial reaction time task by stepping as fast as possible on a stepping tile when it lit up, either with (explicit) or without (implicit) knowledge of the presence of a sequence beforehand. Motor sequence learning was studied by examining response time changes and differences between sequence and random blocks during the learning session (acquisition), 24 h later (retention), and in three dual-task (DT) conditions at baseline and retention (automaticity) using subtracting sevens, verbal fluency, and vigilance as concurrent cognitive DTs. Response times improved and were lower for the sequenced compared with the random blocks at the post- and retention tests (P's < 0.001). Response times during DT conditions improved after learning, but DT cost improved only for the subtracting sevens DT condition. No differences in learning were observed between learning conditions or groups. This study showed motor sequence learning, by acquisition and retention, in a stepping task in pwMS with motor impairments, to a similar degree as HC and regardless of learning conditions. Whether automaticity increased remains unclear.

Orchestration of autonomous trusted third-party banking

Background Digital transformation is changing the structure and landscape of future banking needs with much emphasis on value creation. Autonomous banking solutions must incorporate on-the-fly processing for risky transactions to create this value. In an autonomous environment, access control with role and trust delegation has been said to be highly relevant. The aim of this research is to provide an end to end working solution that will enable autonomous transaction and task processing for banking. Method We illustrate the use case for task delegation with the aid of risk graphs, risk bands and finite state machines. This paper also highlights a step by step task delegation process using a risk ordering relation methodology that can be embedded into smart contracts. Results Task delegation with risk ordering relation is illustrated with six process owners that share immutable ledgers. Task delegation properties using Multi Agent Systems (MAS) is used to eliminate barriers for autonomous transaction processing. Secondly, the application of risk graph and risk ordering relation with reference to delegation of tasks is a novel approach that is nonexistent in RBAC. Conclusion The novelty of this study is the logic for task delegation and task policies for autonomous execution on autonomous banking platforms akin to the idea of federated ID (Liberty Alliance).