Use Of Target Language Research Articles

From Pen to Pixel

The use of digital technologies in higher education is continually increasing, leading to changes in language use and presumably altering the language skills needed for academic studies. However, scores from high-stakes English language proficiency (ELP) tests used in postsecondary admissions only ensure the prerequisite level of traditional English skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking). Such tests generally do not directly assess technology-mediated language skills (e.g., using online dictionaries and communicating via text message) that likely facilitate successful degree completion for international students. We present results from a needs analysis survey to re-evaluate the English-medium postsecondary linguistic landscape (i.e., update the target language use domain description), to inform ELP admissions tests. We specifically investigate international student (n = 379) and disciplinary instructor (n = 427) perceptions of the importance and frequency of technology-mediated language skills. Results show that student and instructor responses differ on certain technology-mediated skills, such as typing on a smartphone, underscoring the need to consider diverse perspectives in domain analysis research. Findings may inform how digital ELP admissions tests are developed, and how English for academic purposes curricula are designed, in order to better align test/classroom tasks with the academic language skills postsecondary students need.

A frequency-based exploratory study of word combinations by EFL learners towards adjective-noun collocations

The mastery of formulaic sequences by language learners is considered to be crucial since it enables them to accomplish the basic communicative requirements (Wray, 2002) of target language use. Of all the formulaic sequences, the mastery of collocations is known to have an enormous impact on learners’ ability to move beyond the intermediate level. This data-driven study explores the word combinations (both conventional and unconventional L2 strings) of L2 users of English. Specifically, the adjective-noun combinations in an L2 corpus (TUWE) were explored to find the potential L2 strings functioning as unconventional collocations. Then, these L2 strings were compared with the adjective-noun collocations in the LOCNESS corpus to determine whether the choices made by L2 learners differed from those of L1 users. The findings show that the spectrum of the L2 word combinations was broader in comparison with LOCNESS. The results suggest that the L2 learners produced a higher number of unconventional collocations than conventional collocations matching with the L1. The L2 strings support that the use of collocations can be rather problematic for learners of English however advanced they are. Some pedagogical implications of the findings for explicit collocation and vocabulary teaching are discussed.

Learner Autonomy Transfer: The Need for Explicit Teacher Training

Autonomous learning in EFL refers to learner involvement, reflection and target language use. Teachers play a vital role of mediators and facilitators in self-regulated method. Thus, their perception of self-regulated practices dictates their implementation of this approach. While research has predominantly focused on inadequate management of autonomous learning in school mostly due to lack of appropriate teacher training, this study examined whether novice teachers who were exposed to extensive autonomous practices were likely to implement this method in their teaching. Twelve novice teachers were interviewed to examine their perception of learner autonomy and their management of this method. It was found that three-thirds of the respondents experienced a gap between familiarity with autonomous learning and a favorable attitude to this approach and their deficient integration of self-regulated learning. Although learner-related and institution-oriented factors played a role in this gap, it was mostly caused by the respondents’ not being genuinely autonomous. This may be due to indirect exposure rather than explicit introduction of the learner autonomy approach. The insights of this research may assist curriculum designers and heads of teacher training programs to rethink course composition to guarantee the transfer of methodologies into EFL classes.

Comparability of reading tasks in high-stakes English proficiency tests and university courses in Korea

With the increased popularity of English-medium instruction (EMI) in higher education, many East Asian universities are using international English proficiency tests to make admissions and placement decisions. Since these tests were not originally designed for the EMI contexts, validity evidence is needed to support the use of these tests in this new context. To interpret performance on a test as representative of performance in a target language use (TLU) domain, this study investigated (1) the characteristics of English reading tasks in Korean EMI undergraduate and graduate courses, (2) the extent to which they are comparable to the characteristics of reading tasks on TOEFL iBT and IELTS, and (3) the extent to which students perceive EMI reading tasks and the test reading tasks to be comparable. Fifty-four undergraduate and graduate students in EMI content courses at a Korean university completed an online questionnaire. Analyses revealed that EMI reading tasks share several characteristics with USA/UK university reading tasks. Although EMI reading tasks had some key characteristics in common with TOEFL and IELTS reading tasks, the test tasks were much more limited in range. Finally, the extent to which students perceived EMI reading tasks and TOEFL/IELTS reading tasks comparable varied across academic areas.

Assessing Creativity in the Language Classroom with the Consensual Assessment Technique

ABSTRACT In this study, The Consensual Assessment Technique is used to measure the creativity of 100 teaching artifacts from world language classrooms. These teaching artifacts were self-selected by K-12 world language teachers and categorized as creative or uncreative. The first set of artifacts was collected prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, in spring of 2019; the second set of artifacts was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, in the winter of 2020, after several months of online teaching. The two sets of artifacts were randomly mixed and content experts rated the creativity of the 100 total artifacts. High levels of inter-rater reliability were obtained. Results indicated that creativity was not impacted by the move to online instruction during the pandemic and that use of target language (e.g. Spanish, French) may have a role to play in creativity.

Setting standards for a diagnostic test of aviation English for student pilots

Standard-setting is an essential component of test development, supporting the meaningfulness and appropriate interpretation of test scores. However, in the high-stakes testing environment of aviation, standard-setting studies are underexplored. To address this gap, we document two stages in the standard-setting procedures for the Overseas Flight Training Preparation Test (OFTPT), a diagnostic English test for ab initio pilots, aligned to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)’s Language Proficiency Rating Scale (LPRS). Performance-level descriptors (PLDs) were empirically generated in Stage 1 in collaboration with six subject matter experts (SMEs). These PLDs made explicit the correspondence between linguistic performance levels within the target language use domain and the ICAO scale. Findings suggest that the ICAO scale is not fine-grained enough to distinguish levels of linguistic readiness among ab initio pilots, nor does it adequately reflect the knowledge, skills, and abilities valued by SMEs within this domain. In Stage 2, 12 SMEs were recruited to set standards and were divided into two groups to investigate the replicability of Ebel method standard-setting procedures. Cut scores were determined for the OFTPT reading and listening tests, which were inferentially linked to the LPRS. There were no significant differences in the cut scores arrived at by both groups and reliability was excellent, suggesting that test users can have confidence in the standards set.

Video research in language classrooms: activities and target language use in early language learning

ABSTRACT A compulsory foreign language in Finland starts now in Grade 1 instead of Grade 3. The change has forced teachers to adopt new teaching methods. As young learners are not yet literate, teaching should focus on oral skills and awareness of diversity. Video data from 19 early foreign language lessons of five English, German, or French teachers in Grades 1 and 2 were analyzed to investigate what methods and activities were employed and how the target language was used. The teachers used various engaging, multisensory activities that were mostly teacher-led and done together with the whole class. Two teachers used plenty of target language while three used mostly Finnish. Besides singing, pupils generally produced single target language words while prefabricated longer expressions were rarer. It is important for teachers to consider activities from the perspective of language use so that pupils’ exposure to and practice of the target language are maximized.

Effect of tasks on learners’ understanding of collocations and its influence on the writing performance of L2 learners

The present study determines the effects of Task-Based language teaching (TBLT) on the writing proficiency and collocational ability of second language (L2) learners who were enrolled in a Pakistani government college. Learning collocational vocabulary is essential for second language learners. Collocations are also crucial for learning a second language especially at the advanced and intermediate levels. The objective of the current study was to determine how collocation knowledge affected the writing abilities of advanced second language (L2) learners. Tasks are the primary instructional technique in the current study and their effects on learners' knowledge of collocations in college students' narrative essay writing were assessed using a range of communicative and awareness-raising task-based materials. Writing samples were collected at the beginning and end of the study to assess the writing abilities of second language (L2) learners. The interviews with participants were used to conduct a thematic analysis using the qualitative technique. Two teachers evaluated the writing sample and were interviewed. The assessors' observations from the interviews on language content, organizational skills, lexical range, use of target language and mechanics were considered while analyzing the impacts of the teaching strategy and collocation use. The data analysis revealed a considerable improvement in the students writing and collocation knowledge.

Exploring Translanguaging Practices in Indonesian Education

The aim of this paper is to elucidate a comprehensive perspective on translanguaging practices in Indonesian education by reviewing empirical literature published in scientific journals. There have been debates on how different languages should be treated in a language learning class especially in EFL classroom context, where students have limited access to target language use and exposure outside the classroom. This study involved 5 ELT teachers and 10 secondary students by collecting data through observations, interviews, and questionnaire. Teachers and students have the benefit of translanguaging practices in EFL classrooms, yet it should be taken into account that L1 should be adopted judiciously. They translanguage using English, Indonesian, and local languages. They have voiced their agreement to the implementation of translanguaging as pedagogy since it positively impacts EFL teaching and learning. However, few teachers have contrasting views about this voice. Future research should focus on investigating translanguaging through experimental research design or pedagogical intervention in EFL classrooms whose students are coming from multiple linguistic backgrounds. The implications of the practice of translanguaging at Indonesian Education are effective and optimal to help students as a new strategy in learning English as foreign language because it can be used to motivate and analyze students' problems in mastering English as a foreign language.

Effective corpus use in second language learning: A meta-analytic approach

Data-driven learning (DDL) refers to the use of corpora by second and foreign language (L2) learners to explore and inductively discover patterns of their target language use from authentic language data without interventions from others. Although previous meta-analyses have demonstrated the positive effects of DDL on L2 learning (Boulton and Cobb, 2017), the number of empirical studies has been increasing since then. Therefore, this study included more recent studies and used meta-analyses to examine the extent to which: (1) DDL exerts an effect on L2 learning; and (2) moderator variables affect DDL's influence on L2 learning. The results demonstrated small to medium effect sizes for experimental/control group comparisons and pre/post and pre/delayed designs. Moreover, the moderator analyses found that moderator variables, such as publication types, learners’ factors, and research designs, influence the magnitude of DDL effectiveness in L2 learning.

A Sociocognitive Account of Willingness to Communicate from the Perspective of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory

This study investigates the dynamic nature of second language willingness to communicate (L2WTC) exploring the numerous factors that contribute to the construct. Drawing upon the sociocognitive perspective, we analyzed the environmental, individual, and linguistic factors that influence the development of L2WTC in an Iranian language learning context. Data were collected through interviews, stimulated-recall sessions, journal keeping, and observations from an intact class of five students. The environmental factors identified throughout the analysis stage were interlocutor familiarity, topic, teacher influence, task type, discussion dynamics, and family dynamics. The individual factors that were found to play a role in the development of L2WTC included anxiety, motivation, self-confidence, security, shyness, perfectionism, perceived need for the target language use, cultural identity, personality, interest in the topic, fear of failure, seeking validation, cultural adaptation, and emotional state. Finally, perceived and actual linguistic competence were among the linguistic factors that influenced L2WTC. Overall, the findings of this study confirmed that L2WTC is a multifaceted complex system that is constantly reacting to environmental changes.

Evaluation of an Optional English Preparatory Program with CIPP Scale

The quality of English language education in universities is vital in preparing individuals for the increasingly globalized world. Assessing the efficacy of English teaching programs is therefore crucial to ensuring such quality. Consequently, this study aims to evaluate the optional English preparatory program of a state university using the CIPP model dimensions: context, input, process, and product. The current study employs a mixed-methods research approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data to address the research questions. The study sample comprised 247 preparatory graduate and 77 preparatory students, as well as 6 lecturers. In the quantitative part, The CIPP scale (Context, Input, Process, and Product), developed by the researchers based on item analysis, second-order exploratory factor analysis, reliability analysis, criterion validity, and content validity, was used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the English preparatory program based on responses of participants to the items in four dimensions of the scale. The qualitative aspect of the study involved obtaining responses from participant students through open-ended questions and conducting semi-structured interviews with lecturers. These responses were analyzed, and the resulting excerpts were used to support and complement the findings obtained from the quantitative findings. The results indicate that the participants were highly satisfied with the optional nature of the program and held positive perceptions of it. However, some improvements, particularly in the physical conditions of the program's context dimension, such as the library, laboratory, and school building, were required. The findings from the input and process dimensions reveal the importance of increasing target language use and prioritization of speaking skills in the product dimension. The developed CIPP scale, which is statistically reliable and valid, can be utilized by researchers to evaluate English preparatory programs using the CIPP model. The study concludes by offering several key recommendations for creating a more effective English preparatory program based on the findings.

The effect of “at home” network communication, off-site travel, and extracurricular activity on longitudinal social network development in study abroad

The nature of second language acquisition (SLA) in study abroad hinges on the type and quality of social relationships that sojourners develop. Social network analysis is now frequently used to describe this development, and to quantify its relationship with SLA outcomes. However, little is known about how different experiential components in study abroad affect sojourners' social network development and, consequently, language learning. The present study examines the effect of three aspects of the study abroad experience – travel outside of the study site; maintenance of “at home” social network communication; and participation in volunteer and workplace internship placements – on the longitudinal social network development of 28 U.S.-based sojourners studying abroad in Spain for one semester. Results identify four social network patterns, which for most students emerged in the first weeks of the semester and remained stable at the middle and end of the sojourn. This social network development was not greatly affected by communication with at-home networks, or by participation in internship placements; however, frequent travel outside the study site was shown to considerably hinder sojourners’ ability to develop social networks that were rich in target language use, or that reflected social “immersion” into the host community.

Repeating the Listening Text: Effects on Listener Performance, Metacognitive Strategy Use, and Anxiety

AbstractIn second language listening assessment and pedagogy, practitioners hold different views on whether to repeat a listening text in contexts where inferences about listening ability are to be drawn from task performance. To address this issue, we investigated the effects of repeating the listening text (double play) on listener performance, listening strategies, test‐taking strategies, test‐taking anxiety, and listening anxiety. Three hundred six Austrian secondary school students responded to four listening tasks drawn from the Austrian Matura exam and completed questionnaires measuring strategic behavior and anxiety in a counter‐balanced research design. Data were analyzed using many‐facet Rasch measurement (MFRM), factor analysis, and inferential statistics. Findings confirmed that double play led to higher levels of listener performance across two task types (multiple‐choice items and note completion), however, scores were higher in the single play condition compared to the first play of double play. Students also reported lower levels of anxiety, and the use of more listening strategies and fewer test‐taking strategies in double play compared to single play with small effect sizes. We discuss the importance of balancing an empirically derived understanding of the effects of repeating the listening text with considerations of the purpose of an assessment, and the characteristics of the target language use domain.

Imagined Communities of English Use in JET Programme Teaching Materials

Visualizing oneself joining imagined communities of target language (TL) use represents a potent motivation for language study. Given that rationales for the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme include fostering internationalization, a student-centered classroom, and communicative skills, teaching to promote learners envisioning themselves gaining access to different imagined social groups via the TL is further warranted in this program. Yet no research has examined the actual role of imagined TL communities in JET teaching. This project responded by investigating how JET participants foster imagined communities of English use among learners. Materials produced by JET teachers from across Japan were collected with a content analysis being undertaken to determine how they portrayed connections between the language and social group participation. Results of this analysis of 5079 teaching materials indicated that most (2783) involved language practice divorced from social connections. The remainder ran the gamut from lessons in which social group information was tangential and not connected to particular language to a smaller number in which connections between language and potential future social group participation were strong. These results suggest that the possibility of leveraging connections between language and social group participation to promote imagined communities of TL use among learners is possible within the JET paradigm and that this avenue for learner motivation could be further exploited. Given the importance of these findings for motivation coupled with the adoption of initiatives similar to JET across Asia, these results have implications both within and outside of the JET Programme.

The Nature of Collaboration in Collaborative Editing Task: Evidence of First Language Use and Patterns of Interaction

This study aims to investigate the nature of collaboration in an EFL collaborative editing task, particularly the evidence of first language (L1) use and patterns of interaction that students used and formed when working with a passage editing task. The study recruited 22 students in grade eleven of SMA Xaverius, Pringsewu. The study follows the framework of Storchs’ dyadic interaction pattern (2002) and Storch and Aldosari's L1 function to code and analyze its data. The data of this study were transcripts of 11 pairs of students participating in an EFL editing task. This study found that the number of first-language use is bigger than the target language use. In percentage, the student average produced around 55,7% of words in the first language and 43,3% of words in the second language. The main function of the L1 is for grammar deliberation, followed by the deliberations over vocabulary (20,2% of all L1 turns), task management (11,1% of all L1 turns), mechanics deliberation (5% of all L1 turns), and last is generating ideas (4,5% of all L1 turns). The main interaction pattern used by the learners was the collaborative pattern (eight out of eleven pairs). The remaining pairs fit dominant/dominant, dominant/passive, and Expert/novice for each of the pair, respectively.

Simulating Real‐World Context in an Email Writing Task: Implications for Task‐Based Language Assessment

Accomplishing a communication task in the real world requires the ability not only to do the task per se but also to manage aspects of the context in which it occurs. For this reason, simulations of target language use contexts have been incorporated into the design of communicative language tests as a way of enhancing the authenticity of assessment task performance. Although some contextual factors may increase extraneous cognitive load and distract learners from focusing on the task at hand (Sweller, 1994), they represent important design considerations in task‐based language assessment (TBLA), where the purpose of assessment is to determine what second language (L2) learners can do with the target language in the real world. In that sense, the extraneous cognitive load might well be part of the construct we are interested in assessing. Accordingly, the current study simulated aspects of a real‐world task performance context as part of an email writing task assessment. Simulated context was operationalized as (a) additional information about the task scenario, (b) a visual image to simulate the physical context, and (c) an audio to replicate the real‐world experience. A total of 276 L2 English learners performed the email task, half with simulated context and the other half without it. Findings revealed that, when presented with simulated context, the tasks were perceived by participants to have induced more time pressure and to be more interesting. In terms of performance effects, the provision of simulated context negatively affected the syntactic complexity of participants' writing but positively affected their syntactic fluency. It also led to greater discrimination among learners at different proficiency levels on various measures of language performance. The paper concludes by highlighting implications for task design and validity evaluation, especially in TBLA.

Analysis of Errors in English Narrative Writing of STIE Port Numbay Students

Background: The making of errors in second language acquisition, especially in writing, is natural, but the errors should not be ignored and need to be treated properly.
 Purpose: The purposes of this descriptive research are to identify the types of errors occured in the narrative writing of first-year students at STIE Port Numbay in Jayapura, explain the causes of the errors and the strategies applied to correct them and to prevent them from happening in the future.
 Design and methods: This research is a descriptive qualitative one that uses the content analysis method. The data were taken from 20 narrative writings about daily activities made by 20 first-year students of STIE Port Numbay in Jayapura who major in Development Economics and took the English 1 course in the Odd Semester of the 2020/2021 Academic Year.
 Results: The findings revealed that there are 9 types of error occured i.e. omission, addition, misselection, misordering, blending, misformations, misspellings, sentence errors and semantic errors in lexis. The errors are caused by interference of the first language or interlingual, inadequate mastery of the target language rules or intralingual and limited vocabulary. The strategies for the error correction are direct feedback and exposing the target language use by its native speakers so that the learners can compare it with their own L2 use. To prevent the same errors, the instructor can improve the learners' mastery of the target language rules by using creative and varied teaching methods and materials as well as encouraging the learners to develop the habit of reading English texts in order to improve their vocabulary and to obtain input about the use of English in writing.
 Keywords: Error analysis, interlingual, intralingual

The Features of Phrases in the Interlanguage of Chinese Students Studying Russian

The purpose of the study is to find out the features of phrases in the interlanguage of Chinese students studying Russian language. By analyzing a number of works related to the term "interlanguage", comparing the concept of interlanguage in the publications of various specialists, in the article the concept of the term "interlanguage" is clarified, which has been updated in recent years in Russian and foreign linguistics, and similarities and differences in their understandings are found. Highlighting the features of phrases in the interlanguage of Chinese student studying Russian language is an important and urgent task that contributes to the study of interlanguage as a whole. The subjects of the research are oral and written language materials collected by teachers with the help of classroom tests and homework among two groups of Chinese philology students studying Russian language at the Faculty of Philology in Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. Scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that the authors for the first time systematically summarized and analyzed such features of phrases in the interlanguage of Chinese students studying Russian language as literal translation from native language to target language, the absence or excessive use of preposition, incorrect choice of preposition in phrases in the interlanguage of Chinese students studying Russian language, and the reasons for the existence of these features. The result of the study provides useful advices in the direction of improving the effectiveness of learning Russian language – in classes of second language acquisition, especially in classes of teaching Chinese students Russian language.

Investigating the Professional Adaptation of English Teachers in the First Years of their Profession to School Environment

This study investigates English teachers’ socialization to the school environment, their behaviour in the classroom, and their attitudes towards their profession in the first few years after graduation. An explanatory research design was used with a mixed-method methodology. We administered a survey to 800 novice English language teachers in 16 cities where there is high rates of governmental teacher placements in Turkey based on the data provided by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE). The questionnaire included five category components: professional competence, interpersonal relations, organizational history and language, organizational goals and values, and organizational policy. We then selected 9 English teachers using purposeful sampling from the three of the 16 cities in order to gain information about novice teachers’ experiences and to elaborate on the results of our quantitative data findings. After observing the classes of those English teachers, we conducted semi-structured interviews. The content analysis of the responses revealed important issues the teachers experienced during their socialization period. These included their relationships with the school administration, colleagues, parents, and the teachers’ own professional competence, particularly in the areas of the target language (TL) use and language teaching methodology. A discussion of the findings provides suggestions for teacher education programmes, thereby contributing to the development of educational curricula. Having postgraduate studies to sustain professional development has been suggested for teacher growth, which will also establish a link between the university-school partnership. The university-school partnership will only be possible with a willingness to collaborate, dedicated time and systematic feedback to share knowledge and experience.