Tamarins Research Articles

RETRACTED: Rule learning by cotton-top tamarins

Previous work suggests that human infants are capable of rapidly generalizing patterns that have been characterized as abstract algebraic rules (Science 283 (1999) 77), a process that may play a pivotal role in language acquisition. Here we explore whether this capacity is uniquely human and evolved specifically for the computational problems associated with language, or whether this mechanism is shared with other species, and therefore evolved for problems other than language. We used the same materials and methods that were originally employed in tests of human infants to assess whether cotton-top tamarin monkeys can extract abstract algebraic rules. Specifically, we habituated subjects to sequences of consonant-vowel syllables that followed one of two patterns, AAB (e.g. wi wi di) or ABB (le we we). Following habituation, we presented subjects with two novel test items, one with the same pattern as that presented during habituation and one with a different pattern. Like human infants, tamarins were more likely to dishabituate to the test item with a different pattern. We conclude that the capacity to generalize rule-like patterns, at least at the level demonstrated, did not evolve specifically for language acquisition, though it remains possible that infants might use such rules during language acquisition.

Food Transfer and Development of Feeding Behavior and Food‐Associated Vocalizations in Cotton‐Top Tamarins

Food transfer between adults and infants is common in many marmoset and tamarin monkeys, and is often accompanied by vocalizations. We hypothesized that vocalizations by adults in a food transfer context creates an opportunity for infants to learn not only what foods are appropriate but what vocalizations are appropriate in feeding contexts. We studied the development of feeding behavior and food‐associated vocalizations in 10 infant cotton‐top tamarins through the first 20 wks of life. Infants obtained solid food through transfers from older group members, primarily the adult male, beginning at weeks 5–6. Both adults and infants vocalized during food transfers with adults, producing rapid sequences of the call types adults normally give when feeding. Infants were usually successful in obtaining food primarily when the adult was vocalizing. The sooner infants were active participants in food transfers, the sooner they began to feed independently. In the early weeks, infants produced a large number of vocal types during food transfers, but with increasing age there was a steady increase in the number of adult‐form food calls and a reduction in other, non‐food‐associated calls. Infants that fed independently at an early age produced fewer non‐food‐associated calls by the last month of observation. Infants called at higher rates to their most preferred food. Food transfers accompanied by vocalizations may provide an opportunity for infants to learn about appropriate foods as well as the vocalizations that accompany feeding in adults, and may represent a form of ‘coaching’ or information donation by adults.

The units of perception in the antiphonal calling behavior of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus): playback experiments with long calls.

We investigated how the acoustic structure of the cotton-top tamarin monkey's (Saguinus oedipus) combination long call relates to the antiphonal calling behavior of conspecifics. Combination long calls can function as contact calls and are produced by socially isolated individuals. Often conspecifics respond to these calls with their own long calls. Structurally, these calls are always composed of one or more 'chirps' followed by two or more 'whistles'. We compared the antiphonal calling responses to playbacks of complete, naturally produced long calls versus single whistles or single chirps. Subjects responded significantly more to whole calls than to either syllable-type alone. Thus, our data suggest that, in terms of the antiphonal calling behavior of socially isolated conspecifics, the whole long call is the unit of perception.

Reproductive biology of captive male cottontop tamarin monkeys as a function of social environment

The cottontop tamarin, Saguinus oedipus oedipus, is a cooperatively breeding monkey in which mature male and female offspring serve as helpers to assist in rearing younger siblings. Generally, only one female per social group reproduces; breeding restriction is mediated in postpubertal female offspring through low and acyclic levels of reproductive hormones. We investigated (1) reproductive activity of postpubertal male offspring, and (2) whether aggression towards male offspring and a cortisol-mediated stress response might restrict breeding of male offspring in the natal group. We examined sexual behaviour, olfactory communication and urinary hormone levels (testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, luteinizing hormone, cortisol) of the subject males while we manipulated their social environment from housing in natal groups to pairing with a novel female, and after the production of their own offspring. Mounting and erection rates of the male subjects were as high in the natal group as when paired with a novel female. However, most mounts in the natal group were directed towards other males, and complete copulation sequences did not occur with natal-group females. Social environment had no significant effect on olfactory investigation of breeding females. Although hormone levels increased significantly after the subjects were removed from the natal group, the elevation was transient; the hormone levels of subjects in their natal groups did not differ from the levels shown by the same males when successfully producing their own offspring. Male offspring received more contact aggression in the natal group than when paired with the novel female. However, most of the aggression was received from siblings rather than the breeding pair, and levels of cortisol did not correspond with levels of aggression. Thus, at both a behavioural and endocrine level, mature male offspring in captive natal groups were potentially fertile, but sexual activity with natal-group females appeared to be behaviourally restricted and directed instead towards group males. In wild cottontop tamarin groups, this reproductive potential may allow male helpers flexibility to respond to breeding opportunities.

Gonadal Source of Testosterone Metabolites in Urine of Male Cotton-Top Tamarin Monkeys (Saguinus oedipus)

Examining gonadal function in the small excitable cotton-top tamarin monkey (Saguinus oedipus) requires noninvasive sampling techniques. Two studies were performed to identify the quantifiable urinary metabolites of testosterone in cotton-top tamarins and which of the measurable metabolites would best reflect a gonadal source of testosterone secretion. In the first study, we injected unlabeled testosterone i.m. in males at either 500-ng or 1-μg levels. Urine samples were analyzed for androgens and estrogens. Testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) increased significantly following the injections in test males but not in control males. No significant increases in androstenedione occurred. Mean levels of estradiol and estrone did not consistently increase during the 5 days following injection. In the second study, a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist, Antide, was used to block LH stimulation of gonadal steroidogenesis. Males given Antide at either a 6 mg/kg dose or an 18 mg/kg dose showed significantly lower levels of urinary LH than controls. At the higher Antide dose, testosterone levels were significantly reduced during weeks 1 and 2 posttreatment, whereas DHT levels significantly declined during the 2nd week posttreatment. Estradiol levels were highly variable prior to treatment but decreased significantly following treatment, whereas estrone levels remained variable throughout. These results indicate that measurement of urinary testosterone and possibly DHT reflect gonadal function in male cotton-top tamarins. Other sources of urinary estrogens may occur for the male cotton-top tamarin, but these data suggest that a substantial part of urinary estradiol is from gonadal sources, whereas urinary estrone appears to be mainly from extragonadal sources.

Functional long-term thymidine kinase suicide gene expression in human T cells using a herpesvirus saimiri vector.

Herpesvirus saimiri transforms human T lymphocytes to stable growth and persists episomally without genomic integration and without virus production. The transformed T cells retain essential features of their parental cells including the MHC-restricted antigen specificity which may be useful for applications in adoptive immunotherapy. In order to improve the biological safety of such vectors, the prodrug activating gene thymidine kinase of herpes simplex virus was inserted into the genome of herpesvirus saimiri by homologous recombination. After infection with wild-type or cloned recombinant viruses, T cells from tamarin monkeys and from humans were transformed to stable growth. Thymidine kinase-expressing transformed T cells were efficiently eliminated in the presence of low concentrations of ganciclovir. This elimination mechanism remained fully functional over an observation period of 12 months. The potentially immunogenic neomycin resistance gene expression cassette was deleted from the genome of established mutant viruses by using the prokaryotic Cre/LoxP recombination system. At any time during the course of a therapeutic application, thymidine kinase-expressing transformed human T cells might be eliminated after administration of ganciclovir. In principle, this function could be useful for the T cell-dependent immunotherapy of resistant blood cancer while avoiding the risk of uncontrolled graft-versus-host disease.

Sleeping Site Selection by the Golden‐handed Tamarin Saguinus midas midas: The Role of Predation Risk, Proximity to Feeding Sites, and Territorial Defence

Tamarin monkeys, of the genus Saguinus, spend over half their lives at arboreal sleeping sites. The decision as to which site to use is likely to have considerable fitness consequences. These decisions about sleeping sites by three troops of golden‐handed tamarin Saguinus midas midas were examined over a 9‐mo period at a rainforest site in French Guiana. Data are presented on the physical nature of sleeping sites, their number, position within home ranges, and pattern of use and reuse, aspects of behaviour at retirement and egress, and predation attempts on the study troops. Cumulative plot analysis indicated that a tamarin troop used 30–40 sleeping sites in a 100‐day period, approximately half of which were used very infrequently, so that consecutive reuse was never greater than three nights. Sleeping trees were superior in architectural parameters and liana weight to non‐sleeping trees. There were no more sleeping sites than expected within the home range boundary region of the tamarins or in areas of overlap with the home ranges of neighbouring troops. Tamarins selected sleeping sites nearest to the last feeding site of the day on 25% of occasions. The study troops engaged in a number of activities that may reduce predation risk; raptor attacks on the study troops over 9 mo were frequent but unsuccessful. Tamarins often visited a sleeping site several hours before arrival, and were more likely to visit a site before use if they had not used it recently. The decision to select a sleeping site therefore involved knowledge of the previous frequency of use of that site.

Sleeping Site Selection by the Golden-handed Tamarin Saguinus midas midas: The Role of Predation Risk, Proximity to Feeding Sites, and Territorial Defence

Tamarin monkeys, of the genus Saguinus, spend over half their lives at arboreal sleeping sites. The decision as to which site to use is likely to have considerable fitness consequences. These decisions about sleeping sites by three troops of golden-handed tamarin Saguinus midas midas were examined over a 9-mo period at a rainforest site in French Guiana. Data are presented on the physical nature of sleeping sites, their number, position within home ranges, and pattern of use and reuse, aspects of behaviour at retirement and egress, and predation attempts on the study troops. Cumulative plot analysis indicated that a tamarin troop used 30-40 sleeping sites in a 100-day period, approximately half of which were used very infrequently, so that consecutive reuse was never greater than three nights. Sleeping trees were superior in architectural parameters and liana weight to non-sleeping trees. There were no more sleeping sites than expected within the home range boundary region of the tamarins or in areas of overlap with the home ranges of neighbouring troops. Tamarins selected sleeping sites nearest to the last feeding site of the day on 25% of occasions. The study troops engaged in a number of activities that may reduce predation risk; raptor attacks on the study troops over 9 mo were frequent but unsuccessful. Tamarins often visited a sleeping site several hours before arrival, and were more likely to visit a site before use if they had not used it recently. The decision to select a sleeping site therefore involved knowledge of the previous frequency of use of that site.

T-cell lymphoma caused by herpesvirus saimiri C488 independently of ie14/vsag, a viral gene with superantigen homology.

The immediate-early gene ie14/vsag of herpesvirus saimiri has homology with murine superantigens. We compared the pathogenesis of infection with either ie14/vsag deletion mutants or wild-type virus C488 in cottontop tamarin monkeys (Saguinus oedipus). Two weeks after infection, all animals developed acute T-cell lymphomas independently of the presence of the viral ie14/vsag gene.

Group size and aggression: ‘recruitment incentives’ in a cooperatively breeding primate

In many cooperatively breeding birds and mammals, group size is positively correlated with reproductive success. In marmoset and tamarin monkeys, species that display cooperative breeding, the presence of helpers appears to be critical for offspring survival, and breeders might be expected to display social strategies that would regulate group size. This study investigated the association between group size and aggression towards strangers in Wied's black tufted-ear marmosets,Callithrix kuhlifrom small groups (with no helpers present) and large groups (with helpers present). Residents were exposed to multiple presentations of male and female strangers. Breeding females from large groups spent more time in close proximity to strangers, showed higher levels of agonistic displays and engaged in higher levels of aggressive behaviour towards intruders than did breeding females from small groups. Breeding male behaviour did not dramatically differ as a function of group size. After the removal of the intruder, female breeders from large groups showed higher levels of scent-marking relative to baseline observations, and time spent in close proximity to the partner increased after exposure to female intruders in large, but not small, groups. The results reveal that breeders from small groups are tolerant of strangers, which may facilitate the recruitment of additional group members, whereas breeders from large groups, particularly females, are intolerant of strangers, which may inhibit immigration. These findings have implications for understanding mechanisms that regulate immigration in cooperatively breeding animals, and suggest of how breeders from small groups might reconcile the serious limitation of having few or no helpers.

Enzymatic methylation of arsenic compounds: IV. In vitro and in vivo deficiency of the methylation of arsenite and monomethylarsonic acid in the guinea pig.

Using an in vitro assay which measures the transfer of a radiolabeled methyl moiety of S-[methyl-3H]adenosylmethionine ([3H]SAM) to arsenite or monomethylarsonate (MMA) to yield [methyl-3H]MMA or [methyl-3H]dimethylarsinate (DMA) respectively, guinea pig liver cytosol was found to be deficient in the enzyme activities which methylate these substrates. Moreover, when guinea pigs were given a single intraperitoneal dose of [73As]arsenate (400 micrograms/kg body weight, 25 microCi/kg body weight), very little or no methylated arsenic species were detected in the urine after cation exchange chromatography. The urine collected 0-12 h after arsenate injection contained 98% inorganic arsenic and less than 1% DMA. No MMA was detected in the 0-12 h urine. Urine collected 12-24 h after injection contained approximately 93% inorganic arsenic, 2% MMA and 3% DMA in five of the six animals studied. However, in the 12-24 h urine of one guinea pig, 17% of the radioactivity was DMA, 80% was inorganic arsenic and 3% was MMA. The guinea pig, like the marmoset and tamarin monkeys and unlike most other animals studied thus far, appears to be deficient as far as the enzyme activities that methylate inorganic arsenite. The results of these experiments suggest that there may be a genetic polymorphism associated with the enzymes that methylate inorganic arsenite.

Hormonal Responses to Parental and Nonparental Conditions in Male Cotton-Top Tamarins,Saguinus oedipus,a New World Primate

The socially monogamous cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) monkey is a cooperative breeder with the breeding male providing extensive parental care shortly after birth. We examined the relationship of urinary prolactin and cortisol excretion both to male parental care and as a stress response in the cotton-top tamarin monkey. First-morning urine samples were collected to determine hormonal concentrations. Hormonal and behavioral data were collected on 8 male cotton-top tamarins during the 2 weeks before and the 2 weeks following birth of infants to their mate, 11 nonparental males with exposure to females, and three eldest sons from large family groups. Prolactin levels were significantly higher in experienced fathers during the postpartum period than in the other males, while cortisol levels were significantly lower in experienced fathers and eldest sons. Prolactin levels in experienced fathers were consistently elevated before birth, following birth, and after infants were weaned; prolactin levels during times of infant independence were still significantly higher than those in nonfather males. First-time fathers exhibited prolactin levels that were significantly higher after the births of infants than these same males did when they were paired with nonpregnant females. Elevated prolactin concentrations also occurred prior to the first birth, suggesting that males may be receiving cues from their pregnant females. The elevated prolactin levels in parental males may be associated with the experience of the fathers. Correlation between prolactin levels and number of successful births, number of previous births, and age were high. The care of newborn infants did not appear to be a stressful event since cortisol levels were not elevated postpartum. Both cortisol and prolactin were elevated following capture and injection of saline or a dopaminergic receptor antagonist, indicating that prolactin does respond to acute stress. Cortisol levels did not coincide with prolactin levels except under acute stress conditions, suggesting that different neural pathways are probably involved in prolactin release during parental care versus acute stress. These studies provide evidence that male urinary prolactin levels may be elevated due to cues from pregnant females and the constant exposure of males to the family environment.

Pollination biology ofSymphonia globulifera (Clusiaceae)

The pollination biology ofSymphonia globulifera was studied in Central Amazonia, Brazil. As suggested by the bird syndrome of the flowers, these are mainly pollinated by hummingbirds. Occasional visits by other birds, butterflies and more rarely bees, as well as tamarin monkeys were also observed.Trigona bees partly destroy the flower tube to rob nectar. The possibility thatS. globulifera may not be primarily adapted to hummingbird pollination is discussed. The pollen is intermixed in an oily fluid secreted by the anthers (antheroil). Each of the five stigmas consists of a pore-like opening at the apex and a small chamber behind it. The antheroil mixed with pollen is absorbed by capillarity into the chamber when deposited on the pore. the pollen germinates inside the stigma. The presence of antheroil and pore-like stigmas in the flowers of the closely relatedPlatonia insignis indicate a similar mode of pollination. The results of this study are compared with observations in some otherClusiaceae (Caraipa, Clusia, Garcinia, Mahurea), where floral oils or floral resin occur. The role of these substances in the pollination process and their relation to the evolution of flower biology inClusiaceae are briefly discussed.

Social and seasonal influences on reproductive biology in male moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax)

In several primate taxa there is evidence that the social and physical environment can exert a significant effect on reproductive behavior and biology. In this paper we examine social and physiological factors influencing group composition and reproduction in free-ranging moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax mystax). This species is characterized by cooperative care of the young and a breeding system that includes both polyandrous and polygyandrous matings. Body measurements collected on adult males residing in multimale groups indicate marked within-group differences in testes volume. In 12 of 17 groups examined, testes volume of at least two resident adult males differed by 21–174%. Among these males, testes volume was not correlated with either body weight or adult age class. We also examine whether factors such as time of year had an effect on reproductive condition. An analysis of body measurements of 128 adult male and 127 adult female moustached tamarins, wild-trapped and released in northeastern Peru, indicates cyclic changes in genital size. For males, mean monthly testes volume in July (712 mm3) was twice that recorded in June (351 mm3). Females exhibited a similar pattern. Although endocrine information on intra- and intersexual social effects on fertility are unavailable for S. mystax, given the high degree of social cooperation and lack of overt aggression among adult male group members, we offer the possibility that resident male moustached tamarins compete for access to the groups' lone breeding female through socially induced reproductive suppression and sperm competition. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Social and seasonal influences on reproductive biology in male moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax).

In several primate taxa there is evidence that the social and physical environment can exert a significant effect on reproductive behavior and biology. In this paper we examine social and physiological factors influencing group composition and reproduction in free-ranging moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax mystax). This species is characterized by cooperative care of the young and a breeding system that includes both polyandrous and polygyandrous matings. Body measurements collected on adult males residing in multimale groups indicate marked within-group differences in testes volume. In 12 of 17 groups examined, testes volume of at least two resident adult males differed by 21-174%. Among these males, testes volume was not correlated with either body weight or adult age class. We also examine whether factors such as time of year had an effect on reproductive condition. An analysis of body measurements of 128 adult male and 127 adult female moustached tamarins, wild-trapped and released in northeastern Peru, indicates cyclic changes in genital size. For males, mean monthly testes volume in July (712 mm3) was twice that recorded in June (351 mm3). Females exhibited a similar pattern. Although endocrine information on intra- and intersexual social effects on fertility are unavailable for S. mystax, given the high degree of social cooperation and lack of overt aggression among adult male group members, we offer the possibility that resident male moustached tamarins compete for access to the groups' lone breeding female through socially induced reproductive suppression and sperm competition. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The Relationship of Cortisol Levels to Social Environment and Reproductive Functioning in Female Cotton-Top Tamarins, Saguinus oedipus

Cortisol levels were examined in 17 cotton-top tamarin monkeys (Saguinus oedipus) to determine: (1) if first-morning void urine sampling could be used as a noninvasive method for monitoring cortisol excretion. (2) if capture and bleeding were associated with changes in urinary cortisol levels, (3) the relative cortisol levels in reproductively active and reproductively suppressed females, and (4) the relationship between cortisol levels and changes in social condition in cotton-up tamarins. Mean urinary cortisol levels during ovarian cycling did not differ between captured and bled females and undisturbed females. Mean cortisol levels were significantly lower in females who were housed in their natal groups and reproductively suppressed than in the same females when they were removed and placed adjacent to a novel male and ovarian cycling began. For all females, mean cortisol levels were higher during the periovulatory period than during the nonperiovulatory period of the ovulatory cycle, with mean cortisol levels higher in newly cycling females than in long-term cycling females. No differences were found in mean cortisol levels between long-term cycling females and prepubertal females and postpubertal natal females. Cortisol levels from long-term cycling females were much lower than during the first two to three ovarian cycles occurring in newly cycling female tamarins, during the last part of pregnancy, and during the first 6 weeks postpartum. These data provide evidence that (1) suppression of ovarian cycling in postpubertal females remaining in their natal family is not associated with stress-induced changes in cortisol levels. (2) cortisol levels are not strictly tied to reproductive condition, and (3) social change may be reflected in cortisol elevation.

Positional behavior in moustached tamarin monkeys: effects of habitat on locomotor variability and locomotor stability

Abstract Knowledge of the positional behavior of living primates offers significant insight into patterns of habitat utilization, foraging strategies, and locomotor adaptations in fossil primates. Although it is generally assumed that locomotor patterns are strongly constrained by anatomy, few studies have addressed the question of locomotor plasticity and the degree to which patterns of positional behaviour may vary within the same species. In this paper, we provide quantitative data on positional behavior and substrate preference in adult moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax) inhabiting two structurally distinct forest types in northeastern Peru. Despite major between-site differences in forest structure, tree density, liana density, and the extent of the continuous canopy, overall patterns of positional behavior were virtually identical. At the Padre Isla Field site, quadrupedal progression (55·7%), climbing (5·7%) and leaping (24·8%) accounted for 86·2% of travel. At the Rio Blanco site, these locomotor behaviors (quadrupedal progression, 51·6%; climbing, 10·8%; and leaping, 30·9%) accounted for 93% of travel. Patterns of support preference were more variable, however, and appeared to reflect site-specific differences in forest architecture. The results of this study indicate that both anatomy and local habitat play an important role in directing patterns of positional behavior in moustached tamarins. We argue, however, that locomotor anatomy acts to constrain the efficiency of locomotor choices and that even in forests of different canopy structure and tree density, tamarins negotiate preferred substrates using consistent patterns of positional behavior. Comparisons with other taxa indicate that several species of arboreal primates are similarly characterized by limited between site variability in positional behavior.

Agnor analysis — A new tool for the assessment of regenerative activity in airway epithelium due to inhalation of air pollutants

The socially monogamous cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) monkey is a cooperative breeder with the breeding male providing extensive parental care shortly after birth. We examined the relationship of urinary prolactin and cortisol excretion both to male parental care and as a stress response in the cotton-top tamarin monkey. First-morning urine samples were collected to determine hormonal concentrations. Hormonal and behavioral data were collected on 8 male cotton-top tamarins during the 2 weeks before and the 2 weeks following birth of infants to their mate, 11 nonparental males with exposure to females, and three eldest sons from large family groups. Prolactin levels were significantly higher in experienced fathers during the postpartum period than in the other males, while cortisol levels were significantly lower in experienced fathers and eldest sons. Prolactin levels in experienced fathers were consistently elevated before birth, following birth, and after infants were weaned; prolactin levels during times of infant independence were still significantly higher than those in nonfather males. First-time fathers exhibited prolactin levels that were significantly higher after the births of infants than these same males did when they were paired with nonpregnant females. Elevated prolactin concentrations also occurred prior to the first birth, suggesting that males may be receiving cues from their pregnant females. The elevated prolactin levels in parental males may be associated with the experience of the fathers. Correlation between prolactin levels and number of successful births, number of previous births, and age were high. The care of newborn infants did not appear to be a stressful event since cortisol levels were not elevated postpartum. Both cortisol and prolactin were elevated following capture and injection of saline or a dopaminergic receptor antagonist, indicating that prolactin does respond to acute stress. Cortisol levels did not coincide with prolactin levels except under acute stress conditions, suggesting that different neural pathways are probably involved in prolactin release during parental care versus acute stress. These studies provide evidence that male urinary prolactin levels may be elevated due to cues from pregnant females and the constant exposure of males to the family environment.

CARNIAN CONODONTS FROM UPPER TRIASSIC STRATA OF TAMARIN SECTION (SAN CASSIANO FM., DOLOMITES, ITALY)

A Late Triassic conodont fauna is described and illustrated for the first time from the San Cassiano Formation of the eastern Dolomites (Tamarin). The co-occurrence of Metapolygnathus auriformis , M. carnicus , M. baloghi , M. polygnathiformis , Gladigondolella tethydis , Gl. arcuata and Gl. malayensis malayensis indicates a Late Julian age. The fauna corresponds to the auriformis Zone (Austriacum Zone according to ammonoid zones). This pelagic conodont fauna, characteristic of relatively deep water, shows strong faunal affinities with coeval faunas from European Tethyan regions(mainly Greece, Turkey, NE Hungary, and Alps) and northern Kumaun region of Tethys Himalaya.

THE STORY OF JUDAH AND TAMAR IN THE EYES OF THE EARLIEST INTERPRETERS

THE STORY OF JUDAH AND TAMAR IN THE EYES OF THE EARLIEST INTERPRETERS Cecilia Wassén Cecilia Wassén Department of Religious Studies, McMaster University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Literature and Theology, Volume 8, Issue 4, December 1994, Pages 354–366, https://doi.org/10.1093/litthe/8.4.354 Published: 01 December 1994