Systematic Reassessment Research Articles

Structured re-assessment system at 6 months after a disabling stroke: a randomised controlled trial with resource use and cost study

national policy recommends routine re-assessment of disabled patients and their carers at 6 months after stroke onset. The clinical and resource outcomes of this policy were investigated. prospective, single-blind, randomised controlled trial in two centres. a total of 265 patients with a disabling stroke and their carers. a structured re-assessment system for patients and their carers at 6 months post-stroke or existing care. primary: patient independence (Frenchay activities index) and carer stress (general health questionnaire 28). Secondary: activities of daily living, mood state, satisfaction with services, carer strain index, health and social service resource use and costs. independence at 12 months post-stroke was similar in both groups (Frenchay activities index, adjusted mean difference 0.64; 95% confidence interval -0.74-2.02). Emotional distress in carers was similar in both groups (general health questionnaire 28, mean difference 0.02; 95% confidence interval -0.95-1.00). Results for the secondary outcome measures and total mean costs were similar for both groups. The intervention group patients used 301 fewer hospital bed days and 1,631 fewer care home bed days. the structured, systematic re-assessment for patients and their carers was not associated with any clinically significant evidence of benefit at 12 months. Health and social care resource use and mean cost per patient were broadly similar in both groups. International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Register; number: ISRCTN55412871.

Hospital antibiotic stewardship

Antibiotic stewardship is designed to optimize antimicrobial therapy administered to hospitalized patients, to ensure cost-effective therapy and improve patients' outcome while containing bacterial resistance. Current data on the development of effective programmes, including guidelines for their implementation, have demonstrated some efficacy and controversies are reviewed. Guidelines have been recently issued for the development and implementation of active antibiotic stewardship programmes in hospitals. A multidisciplinary team including at least an infectious disease physician and a clinical pharmacist is required. Multiple strategies are available, including prospective audit with feedback to the provider, education and antimicrobial restriction. Interventions have shown a positive effect on optimization of antimicrobial use, reduced costs and bacterial resistance, but studies showing improvement in patient outcomes are sparse. Results of studies may be confounded by several factors, mainly due to their before-after design and lack of control for cointerventions. Combined with an effective infection control programme, antibiotic stewardship can help contain antimicrobial resistance. Studies demonstrating improvement of patients' outcomes are needed to increase acceptance by a broader audience of physicians. A proactive strategy of prospective auditing with direct counsels and feedback to the prescriber, ensuring systematic reassessment of ongoing therapy, appears most useful.

Specific control measures for antibiotic prescription are related to lower consumption in hospitals: results from a French multicentre pilot study

In France, antibiotic consumption (ABC) is dramatically high in parallel with the high rate of multidrug-resistant bacteria. For the last few years, a nationwide policy has been implemented at the national level to control and monitor ABC. Since 2002, surveillance networks have been set up with voluntary hospitals to evaluate the antibiotic policy and consumption. The present study was conducted to identify whether specific control measures of the antibiotic policy could reduce ABC in hospitals. Based on the data from the Northern France surveillance system, local recommendations and antibiotic use were collected annually on a standardized questionnaire that had 21 items. ABC was expressed in defined daily doses (DDDs) per 1000 patient-days (PDs). The ABC indicator was the overall antibiotic consumption. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed using low (< or =75th percentile) and high (>75th percentile) ABC as the dependent variable. A total of 83/111 hospitals were included in the study. In 75% of the hospitals, total ABC was < or =669.5 DDDs/1000 PDs. The less frequent practices were educational antibiotic programmes (17%), authorization from an antibiotic specialist for selected antibiotics (26%) and systematic reassessment of AB treatment after 72 h (27%). In the multivariate analysis, three variables remained significantly and independently associated (P < 0.05) with ABC: the type of hospital, the proportion of non-acute-care beds and the nominative delivery form as the only antibiotic control measure. Total ABC was lower in hospitals having a nominative delivery form, compared with hospitals not having it. Conversely, ABC was significantly higher in public teaching hospitals compared with non-teaching hospitals. Similarly, ABC was higher in hospitals with a lowest proportion (i.e. < or =25%) of non-acute-care beds compared with hospitals where this proportion was >25%. Specific control measures could lower ABC. Sustained control efforts should focus on antibiotics with the highest potential for emerging bacterial resistance.

Assessing Pain in Persons with Dementia: Relationships Among the Non-communicative Patient’s Pain Assessment Instrument, Self-report, and Behavioral Observations

Pain is a common problem for many older adults, with up to 50% of community-dwelling and 70% to 80% of nursing home residents experiencing pain regularly. Effective pain management requires thorough assessment, appropriate intervention, and systematic reassessment. Pain assessment, however, is complicated by dementia, which impairs memory, reasoning, recognition, and communication, and affects elders’ ability to verbally report pain. As such, observational measures are needed to assess pain in this vulnerable population. The Non-communicative Patient’s Pain Assessment Instrument (NOPPAIN) was developed for this purpose, but more validation of this measure is needed. Thus, the purpose of this study was to (1) evaluate reliability of the NOPPAIN tool when used by nurses and to (2) compare NOPPAIN ratings with self-report and other well-established behavioral rating procedures. Forty participants (20 cognitively intact and 20 impaired) were randomly selected for this study from a larger sample. In the parent study, participants were asked to perform everyday activities (i.e., sit, stand, walk in place, transfer in and out of bed) while being videotaped. The tapes, all previously scored using microanalytic observational coding, were rated again by naïve raters using the NOPPAIN measure. Results indicated (1) high inter- and intrarater reliability of the NOPPAIN and (2) significant correlations of the NOPPAIN with self-reported pain and detailed behavioral coding. Findings support the reliability and validity of the NOPPAIN measurement tool and suggest this easy-to-use tool may be adequate for measuring pain indicators in older adults.

A systematic reassessment of the genus Microchaetus Rapp, 1849: its amended definition, reinstatement of Geogenia Kinberg, 1867, and erection of a new genus Kazimierzus (Oligochaeta: Microchaetidae)

The endemic South African genus Microchaetus Rapp, 1849, considered to be composite, is restudied. Three groups of species are recognised and separated into three genera. Species braunsi , decipiens , klopperi , papillatus , rappi , stuckenbergi and vernoni are left in Microchaetus , with microchaetus as the type species. Genus Geogenia Kinberg, 1867 is reinstated for ambita , benhami , caementerii , distasmosa , gripha , herberti , idechorita , madida , mkuzi , montana , namaensis , parva , pentheri , pondoana , quera , ritae , rivus , tegwana , tuberosus and zaloumisi , with the type species natalensis . For alipentus , circulatus , crousi , davidi , franciscus , guntheri , hamerae , imitatus , ljungstroemi , metandrus , obscurus , occidualis , occiduus, pauli , pearsonianus , pentus , peringuei , rosai , senarius , sirgeli and sophieae , occurring in western and south-western parts of South Africa, and characterised by distinct features, the new genus Kazimierzus gen. n. is established, with hamerae designated as the type species. Descriptions of the familial characters, corresponding with those originally given by Michaelsen (1900, 1918, 1928), augmented by Gates (1959), Brinkhurst and Jamieson (1971), and Plisko (1996 a , 2006), and emended on the basis of the present study, are provided. A key is presented for all currently recognised genera of Microchaetidae. Keys to the species of Microchaetus ( s . str .), Geogenia and Kazimierzus gen. n. are given. Checklists of reclassified species, their synonymy, and notes on their occurrence, are provided. The distribution of each genus dealt with in this study is mapped. To cite this paper: Plisko, J. D. 2006. A systematic reassessment of the genus Microchaetus Rapp, 1849: its amended definition, reinstatement of Geogenia Kinberg, 1867, and erection of a new genus Kazimierzus (Oligochaeta: Microchaetidae). African Invertebrates 47 : 31-56.

The ABC of demographic behaviour: How the interplays of alleles, brains, and contexts over the life course should shape research aimed at understanding population processes

This paper proposes core innovations in the strategy of research on demographic behaviour. One aim is a shift of attention away from events and towards a focus on dynamic processes and their interplay: away from a preoccupation with marriage and divorce, births, deaths, migrations, and household structure towards a broader perspective that takes account of partnership and intimacy, parenthood, potential and well-being, position in society and space, and personal ties. Another aim is a much closer engagement with genetics, neuroscience, psychology, and behavioural economics. A third aim is a strategy that pays more attention to pathways within the individual, to the processes entailed when the individual interacts with various contexts, and to progressions that involve the interplay of the pathways and processes through the life course. These shifts of emphasis, which have already begun to occur, require a systematic reassessment of priorities for research on demographic behaviour.

Systematic reassessment of the red algal genus Phyllymenia (Halymeniaceae, Rhodophyta)

A systematic reassessment of the sole representative of the South African genus Phyllymenia, P. belangeri, indicates a lack of clear-cut diagnostic characters to separate it from Grateloupia. The morphology of the auxiliary cell ampullae, widely regarded as a key generic character in the Halymeniaceae, is almost identical in both genera. The autapomorphic character that has traditionally separated Phyllymenia from Grateloupia is the formation of pronounced lateral cytoplasmic protuberances on inner cortical cells. However, the establishment of protuberances is correlated with the presence of large intercellular spaces between neighbouring cortical cell files, coupled with narrow intercalary cortical cells. Thus, in order to establish secondary pit connections to more distant neighbouring cells, cortical cell protuberances may have become more prominent in P. belangeri than in species of Grateloupia with smaller intercellular spaces. Phylogenetic analyses of chloroplast-encoded rbcL sequences for a dataset including four representatives of P. belangeri and 32 other species, currently placed in Grateloupia or Prionitis, resolve (with high support) P. belangeri as a sister taxon of G. longifolia from South Africa. Based on morphological and molecular evidence, it is therefore proposed that Phyllymenia be reduced to a synonym of Grateloupia.

A systematic reassessment of the marine ascomycetes Torpedospora and Swampomyces

Torpedospora and Swampomyces have not been classified into any family or order with certainty. Results, based on individual and combined analyses of the partial small and large subunit rRNA gene sequences, indicate that Torpedospora and Swampomyces form a monophyletic clade and group within the subclass Hypocreomycetidae, Sordariomycetes. Torpedospora is distantly related, morphologically and phylogenetically, to the Halosphaeriales. Swampomyces shows no affinities with the Phyllachorales despite earlier assignment to that order. These findings suggest a new lineage of marine ascomycetes that have invaded the sea. Torpedospora and Swampomyces share few morphological features in common, although clustering in the same clade. Based on morphology and sequence evidence, we suggest their referral as the Hypocreomycetidae incertae sedis, Sordariomycetes, until further information is available.

A systematic reassessment and paleogeographic review of fossil Xenarthra from Peru

A revision of Peruvian Xenarthra and the discovery of new specimens have increased our knowledge of the Order in this country. About thirty sites from three geographic regions, Amazonian Forest, the Andes, and the coast have yielded Xenarthra in Peru. The only well known Pre-Pleistocene Xenarthra is Thalassocnus from the Mio-Pliocene of the Pisco Formation. Pleistocene Phyllophaga (Megatheriidae, Nothrotheriidae, Mylodontidae, and Megalonychidae) and Cingulata (Pampatheriidae and Glyptodontidae) are rare in the Amazonian forest region, abundant in the coastal region and are particularly frequent in the Andes (between 2 500 and 4 500 meters). Cingulata are not as diverse and are represented only by Holmesina cf. paulacoutoi along the coast and Glyptodon clavipes in the Andes. The mylodontid Glossotherium sp. is recognized in the entire Peruvian coast and the scelidothere Scelidodon chiliensis is abundant in both the Andes and northern coast region. Pleistocene nothrotheres are found only in the Amazonian forest region (Nothropus priscus in Rio Acre). Megatheriidae are well diversified and have an extended geographic range. The tropical genus Eremotherium (E. laurillardi) is present on the northern coast and is possibly represented in Amazonia by a gigantic form. The temperate genus Megatherium is represented in Peru by a small-sized, quadrupedal, and browser of the Andean linage of the subgenus M. (Pseudomegatherium), which includes M. (P.) tarijense, M. (P.) elenense, M. (P.) urbinai, and new species from the northern Andes. Large species of sloths such as Megatherium (Megatherium) americanum, Lestodon sp., and Scelidotherium leptocephalum that are typical of the Argentinian Pampas are absent in Peru. A peculiar new megalonychid was discovered in the north coast region (Cupisnique desert) and in the Andes near Lake Titicaca at Casa del Diablo cave. 14C dating indicates that most of fossil mammals in Peru are Lujanian in age. Along the coast and probably in Amazonia, Xenarthra are found in open localities, in contrast to the Andean region in which most specimens are preserved in caves. In Peru, and all over South America, large Xenarthra did not survive beyond the beginning of the Holocene.

Pain management in elderly adults.

Pain is a common experience for many elderly adults that has negative consequences for their health, functioning, and quality of life. Effective pain management requires thorough assessment, appropriate intervention, and systematic reassessment. This article will discuss strategies for assessing and measuring pain in elderly adults, as well as barriers to effective pain assessment. Pain treatment strategies, including both pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches will also be covered and special considerations for administering medications to elderly adults will be highlighted.

Macroscopic carbonaceous compressions in a terminal Proterozoic shale: A systematic reassessment of the Miaohe biota, south China

Carbonaceous compression fossils in shales of the uppermost Doushantuo Formation (ca. 555-590 Ma) at Miaohe in the Yangtze Gorges area provide a rare Burgess-Shale-type taphonomic window on terminal Proterozoic biology. More than 100 macrofossil species have been described from Miaohe shales, but in an examination of published and new materials, we recognize only about twenty distinct taxa, includingAggregatosphaera miaoheensisnew gen. and sp. Most of these fossils can be interpreted unambiguously as colonial prokaryotes or multicellular algae. Phylogenetically derived coenocytic green algae appear to be present, as do regularly bifurcating thalli comparable to red and brown algae. At least five species have been interpreted as metazoans by previous workers. Of these,Protoconites minorandCalyptrina striatamost closely resemble animal remains; either or both could be the organic sheaths of cnidarian scyphopolyps, although an algal origin cannot be ruled out forP. minor.Despite exceptional preservation, the Miaohe assemblage contains no macroscopic fossils that can be interpreted with confidence as bilaterian animals. In combination with other late Neoproterozoic and Early Cambrian body fossils and trace fossils, the Doushantuo assemblage supports the view that body-plan diversification within bilaterian phyla was largely a Cambrian event.

Beliefs about voices and their effects on coping strategies.

Cognitive behavioural techniques are increasingly used as adjuncts to medication in the treatment of auditory hallucinations for people with schizophrenia. There are now literally hundreds of nurses trained in the use of cognitive behavioural interventions for psychosis. However, there is still disagreement about the nature of the cognitive processes that lead to deficits or biases in patients' processing of information about their psychotic experiences. Using Chadwick & Birchwood's Beliefs About Voices Questionnaire (BAVQ), the investigator collected data regarding voices from a sample of men and women being treated for schizophrenia by secondary mental health services. The investigator then carried out a cross-lagged panel analysis of the data. The investigator found, as predicted, positive relationships between a resistive coping style and an attribution of malevolence to voices, and between an engaging coping style and an attribution of benevolence to voices. Coping and attributional styles were not necessarily stable over time. There was a non-significant difference between women's and men's attributions and coping styles. There was less fluctuation over time in the women's scores on the BAVQ. This research shows that one cannot assume that either coping or attributional style becomes more stable over time. However, while there are strong relationships between attributions and coping styles, and particularly between malevolence and resistance and benevolence and engagement, these relationships are not necessarily mutually exclusive and some people in the study believe their voices to be both malevolent and benevolent. These findings suggest that clinicians need to make a very careful assessment of attribution and coping with regard to hallucinations and that systematic reassessment is very important. Further research is necessary in both the phenomenology of attribution and coping, but also to relate these variables to other aspects of schizophrenic illnesses.

Molecular Phylogeny and Evolutionary Patterns of the European Satyrids (Lepidoptera: Satyridae) as Revealed by Mitochondrial Gene Sequences

We examine the phylogenetic relationships of more than 40 species of European satyrids representing six tribes (Coenonymphini, Erebiini, Maniolini, Satyrini, Melanargiini, and Lethini). The analyses are based on comparisons of morphological data and mitochondrial genes encoding the large ribosomal subunit (16S rDNA) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1). The cladistic reassessment of systematics based on morphological characters differs from the view retained by Miller by a lack in resolution due to the low number of characters used. Furthermore, some level of incongruence about the monophyly of the tribes is found between topologies from morphological and molecular analyses. In the case of Aphantopus hyperantus, molecular data and reexamination of morphology of this taxon indicate that this species has to be included within Maniolini. Contrary to the other clades, Erebia displays a radiate systematic pattern which cannot be explained by a lack of variable or informative sites. The combined spatial and temporal specialization found in the Erebia species may explain the rapid diversification of this genus relative to other satyrids. Finally, the subfamily level as defined by Miller for the taxa presented in the data set (Satyrinae and Elymninae) is not consistent with the molecular data. Given the reassessment of satyrids as a subfamily within Nymphalidae (Satyrinae), it seems more appropriate to retain the tribes as valid taxonomic ranks only in Satyrinae.

PARTIAL REVISION OF PINNOTHERID CRAB GENERA WITH A TWO-SEGMENTED PALP ON THE THIRD MAXILLIPED (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA)

Two new genera in the Pinnotheridae are recognized from the northwestern Atlantic, Gemmotheres, new genus (type species Pinnotheres chamae Roberts, 1975) and Tunicotheres, new genus (type species Pinnotheres moseri Rathbun, 1918). These genera shared a 2-segmented palp on the third maxilliped with Calyptraeotheres Campos, 1990, Dissodactylus Smith, 1870, Ostracotheres H. Milne Edwards, 1853, and Xanthasia White, 1846. They differ in shape, texture, and hardness of the carapace, shape and relative length of third maxilliped articles, relative length of the walking legs, and relative length and shape of their articles. Comparisons among these genera are provided in a dichotomous key based on adult female characters. During the last five years I have studied the systematics of a subgroup of pinnotherid crabs which are characterized by a twosegmented palp on the third maxilliped (lacking a dactylus). The first result of this study was the erection of the genus Calyptraeotheres Campos, 1990 (type species Fabia granti Glassell, 1933) from the Mexican Pacific. This work led to the systematic reassessment of the remaining American Pinnotheridae with a two-segmented palp on the third maxilliped, Pinnotheres moseri Rathbun, 1918, and P. chamae Roberts, 1975. The analysis of several morphological and ecological features has led to the conclusion that: (1) P. moseri and P. chamae do not belong in the genus Pinnotheres Bosc, 1802 [type species P. pisum (Linnaeus, 1767)] or any other named genera in the Pinnotheridae, and (2) several autapomorphies separate these taxa at the generic level.

Genetic susceptibility for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Caucasians revisited: the importance of diabetes registries in disclosing interactions between HLA-DQ- and insulin gene-linked risk. Belgian Diabetes Registry.

Whether genetic susceptibility for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) at the 5' insulin gene polymorphic region (5' INS) interacts with human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQ-linked disease risk and whether it is associated with autoantibody formation is presently controversial. Diabetes registries allow more systematic reassessment of these questions. Two hundred and ninety-six Caucasian IDDM patients were recruited by the Belgian Diabetes Registry and sampled at disease onset, together with 195 ethnically matched control subjects. 5'INS genotypes were determined by Southern blotting, HLA-DQ by allele-specific oligotyping, and autoantibodies by validated immunoassays. The 5' INS 1/1 genotype was more prevalent in patients than in controls [relative risk (RR) = 2.3; P < 10(-4)]. Regardless of age at onset, the 5' INS 1/1 genotype occurred less frequently in patients with the high-risk genotype DQA1*0301-DQB1*0302/DQA1*0501-DQB1*0201 than in patients without it (P < 0.04). The RR associated with this high-risk HLA-DQ genotype (24.9; P < 10(-6)) was not affected by the presence or absence of the 5' INS 1/1 genotype. Combined positivity for the 5' INS 1/1 genotype and for one of three other HLA-DQ genotypes associated with an intermediate risk for IDDM conferred an age-independent RR of 12.1 (P < 10(-4)). In the absence of the 5' INS 1/1 genotype, intermediate-risk HLA-DQ genotypes no longer conferred a significant risk (2.9; not significantly different from 1). In subjects carrying neutral, protective, or infrequent HLA-DQ genotypes, the overall RR for IDDM was significantly lower than 1 (0.2; P < 10(-6)) in the absence of the 5' INS 1/1 genotype but not in its presence (0.8; not significantly different from 1). The 5' INS 1/1 genotype was not preferentially associated with immune markers for IDDM. In conclusion, regardless of age at onset and the presence of autoantibodies, 5' INS polymorphisms contribute preferentially to IDDM susceptibility in subjects without the highest HLA-DQ-associated risk.

The systematics of nematodes that cause ostertagiasis in domestic and wild ruminants in North America: an update and a key to species

Studies of medium stomach worms (Subfamily Ostertagiinae) of domestic and wild ruminants in North America have refined our understanding of the systematics, host distribution and biogeography of these nematodes. Strong support for recognition of monophyly for the Ostertagiinae has resulted from preliminary phylogenetic analyses of morphological characters among these and other trichostrongylids. Evaluation of morphological and biochemical characters in our laboratory and elsewhere has not refuted the polymorphism hypothesis where paired major and minor morphotypes are postulated to represent polymorphic species within the genera Ostertagia (Ostertagia ostertagi/Ostertagia lyrata; Ostertagia leptospicularis/Ostertagia kolchida; Ostertagia gruehneri/Ostertagia arctica; Ostertagia mossi/Ostertagia dikmansi), Teladorsagia (Teladorsagia circumcincta/Teladorsagia trifurcata (=Teladorsagia davtiani), and Marshallagia (Marshallagia marshalli/Marshallagia occidentalis). The minor mophotype of Ostertagia bisonis, recognized in Eurasia (considered to be Teladorsagia kazakhstanica), has yet to be discovered in North America. The taxonomy of these species has remained stable since an earlier overview of Ostertagia spp. and Teladorsagia spp. in North America domestic stock at the 1986 Ostertagia Workshop. Investigations since 1986 have focused on comparative morphology and the clear differentiation of Ostertagiinae, primarily from wild ruminants, that have been reportd or may potentially occur in domestic bovids. Among these are species which infect wild and domestic sheep ( Marshallagia marshalli/Marshallagia occidentalis), bovids ( Ostertagia bisonis), and cervids ( Ostertagia mossi/Ostertagia dikmansi, Ostertagia leptospicularis/Ostertagia kolchida, Ostertagia gruehneri/Ostertagia arctica, Mazamastrongylus odocoilei and Mazamastrongylus pursglovei) in North America. A key is presented for identifying 5 species of the Subfamily Ostertagiinae that are parasitic in domestic and wild ruminants of North America. Four exotic species ( Camelostrongylus mentulatus, Spiculopteragia spiculoptera (=Spiculopeteragia boehmi), Spiculopteragia asymmetrica and Longistrongylus curvispiculum) have been reported in North America, but only in game farms and are not included in the key. Hyostrongyus rubidus, a member of the Ostertagiinae normally parasitic in pigs and only rarely reported from domestic ruminants, is not included in the keys. Additional data from comparative morphology and molecular analyses will promote a reassessment of the generic-level systematics of the Ostertagiinae and allow an evaluation of host-parasite evolution and historical biogeography.

What is fundamental in an information age? A focus on curriculum

Systematic reassessment of both overt and covert curriculum content and methods is needed in response to broader social change involved in the information revolution. The educational system in the United States is moving (unevenly) through three overlapping stages of curriculum change: (1) focus on technology, (2) integration of technology into curriculum, and (3) focus on fundamental change in curriculum. Indicators of the current state of change in elementary and secondary schools include state education agency mandates, teacher-oriented publications, past and present surveys of computer use in schools, teacher attitudes, private industry initiatives, and recommendations of national study groups and commissions.

What is fundamental in an information age?

How are curriculum goals, content and processes being changed in response to challenges and opportunities posed by the Information Revolution? Systematic reassessment of both curriculum content and methods is needed, to take into account the skills and knowledge necessary in an information-based society. Reassessment and curriculum development should take into account students' needs for skills in:* formulating problems and communicating problems to others;* locating sources of information related to defined problems;* selecting, modifying, and/or developing algorithmic methods for solving problems and managing information;* using available data and analytic tools to solve problems;* estimating reasonableness of solutions;* iterating and refining;* communicating problems, methods, findings, and interpretations to others;* collaborating with others in all of the above.

The political economy of tariff policy: A case study of the United States

Economic historians generally agree that the Civil War marks a watershed in the history of 19th century American tariff policy. With few exceptions, antebellum tariff legislation had reduced duties on imports. During the three decades prior to the war, tariff rates systematically declined. Import duties were to reach their lowest level of the century with the passage of the 1857 tariff act. With the outbreak of the Civil War, however, legislation was passed which dramatically increased tariff rates. While originally intended for the purpose of raising revenue, the “war tariffs” remained in effect throughout the rest of the century. Given such a fundamental change in American tariff policy it is not surmising that economic historians have written extensively on the subject. Many scholars have focused attention on the political history of the legislative shift.’ Others have directed their inquiries to specific industry studies.2 Recently, attention has turned to an examination of the relationship between tariff policy and social welfare.3 Curiously enough, however, recent research has not generally considered the determinants of tariff policy.4 In the case of the postbellum period no systematic reassessment of tariff formation has been made since the work dane by Taussig (1931). The conventional wisdom on postbellum policy still reflects Taussig’s perception of the political and industrial vested interests working to maintain a protectionist policy. Taussig complained at length about “the process by which the protective system has gradually been brought to

Black Student Activism, 1960–70: A Bibliography

The purpose of this bibliography is to list some of the more important primary and secondary sources on the emergence and development of the black student movement that so profoundly influenced much of the thinking and action that shaped institutional responses to racial and class issues during the past two decades. This bibliography is not meant to be exhaustive. For instance, there is no mention of the Black Studies movement of which black students were such a significant part. That would require a separate bibliography. The purpose here is to provide a detailed examination of the developmental aspects of a portion of the movementthis examination representing a preface to a more systematic reassessment of the movement as a whole.