Swedish Variety Research Articles

Combining formal and functional approaches to variation in (morpho)syntax: Introduction to the special issue

Abstract This special issue examines the question of how both formal(ist) and functional(ist) accounts or elements of theorizing can contribute to the explanation of (morpho)syntactic variation. Are formal and functional approaches really irreconcilable with each other, as often seems to be taken for granted by their respective advocates? It will be argued instead that they are rather complementary and that both can make a valuable contribution to explaining linguistic variation, in synchronic as well as diachronic respects. The integration of ways of looking at a certain phenomenon or problem from the respective other camp is proven to provide a significant added value and should not be excluded. The volume focuses on several Germanic languages and dialects, more specifically on German, Dutch, and Swedish varieties. It unites different formal and functional perspectives and, not least, it considers also semantic and phonological factors. The models covered include different versions of generative grammar, information-based morphology, construction grammar/construction morphology, natural morphology, and sociolinguistics.

Regional background and donor-language fluency as predictors of Finnish loanword frequency in Finland-Swedish

Aims and objectives: This study examines fennicisms (i.e., Finnish loanwords and calques) in Finland-Swedish, a Swedish variety spoken in Finland. We investigate how fennicism frequency relates to speakers’ regional backgrounds and fluency in Finnish. Methodology: 134 participants from four regions in Finland performed a picture-naming task designed to elicit fennicisms. The participants also rated their own fluency in Finnish. Data and analysis: A regression analysis with the outcome variable of fennicism frequency and the predictors of region, fluency in Finnish, and gender was performed. Findings: Results show that speakers from the more bilingual regions of Southern Finland and Helsinki used significantly more fennicisms than speakers from Ostrobothnia or Swedish-speaking Åland. The study suggests that fluency in Finnish was a strong predictor for fennicism use, as speakers with low or moderate knowledge of Finnish used fewer fennicisms than speakers with high or native(-like) fluency. No significant effect of gender was found. Originality: While fennicisms are considered widespread in Finland-Swedish, there is little previous research on their use and distribution. Implications: The results demonstrate that while many of the fennicisms are well-established in the Finland-Swedish variety, their use is limited to certain groups and communities.

Errors or identity markers? A survey study on the use of and attitudes towards finlandisms and fennicisms in Finland Swedish

AbstractThis study examines the use of and attitudes towards finlandisms and fennicisms in Finland Swedish. Finlandisms are words or structures typical of the Swedish variety spoken in Finland, while fennicisms are a category of finlandisms for which the source language is Finnish. Fennicisms are often discussed in context of Finnish influence and consequent Finland Swedish language loss, suggesting that the use of these features in Swedish is stigmatised. The study analyses survey responses from 126 Finland Swedish individuals in order to investigate the use of and perceptions regarding fennicisms. The responses indicate that although finlandisms and, in particular, fennicisms are often seen as erroneous, they can also be used to indicate a uniquely Finland Swedish linguistic identity. Additionally, responses regarding fennicisms provide examples of previously overlooked Finnish loanwords, while also indicating that loanwords with origins in other languages are often misidentified as stemming from Finnish. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Gender Assignment in Six North Scandinavian Languages: Patterns of Variation and Change

This study addresses gender assignment in six North Scandinavian varieties with a three-gender system: Old Norse, Norwegian (Nynorsk), Old Swedish, Nysvenska, Jamtlandic, and Elfdalian. Focusing on gender variation and change, we investigate the role of various factors in gender change. Using the contemporary Swedish varieties Jamtlandic and Elfdalian as a basis, we compare gender assignment in other North Scandinavian languages, tracing the evolution back to Old Norse. The data consist of 1,300 concepts from all six languages coded for cognacy, gender, and morphological and semantic variation. Our statistical analysis shows that the most important factors in gender change are the Old Norse weak/strong inflection, Old Norse gender, animate/inanimate distinction, word frequency, and loan status. From Old Norse to modern languages, phonological assignment principles tend to weaken, due to the general loss of word-final endings. Feminine words are more susceptible to changing gender, and the tendency to lose the feminine is noticeable even in the varieties in our study upholding the three-gender system. Further, frequency is significantly correlated with unstable gender. In semantics, only the animate/inanimate distinction signifi-cantly predicts gender assignment and stability. In general, our study confirms the decay of the feminine gender in the Scandinavian branch of Germanic.

Growth of willow energy plantations on the marginal lands of the Kyiv Polissia

Purpose. Investigation of the features of growth, development and productivity of energy willow varieties on peat-bog and alluvial sandy soils in the floodplains of the Kyiv Polissia rivers.
 Methods. Field, laboratory, analytical, and statistical.
 Results. It is advisable to use the variety ‘Zbruch’, to create willow energy plantations on the peat-swampy soils of the Kyiv Polissia. It is characterized by the highest yield of three-year biomass (9.84 t/ha), while in the ‘Ternopil’ cultivar the maximum was 3.29 t/ha and in the Salix triandra clone 2.68 t/ha. On alluvial sandy soil, the highest average height (194 ± 6.6 cm), with a productivity of two-year biomass of 3.15 t/ha had Swedish variety ‘Tordis’. In addition, relatively high productivity have Polish varietyes ‘082’ and ‘1047’ and the domestic variety ‘Ternopil’. The productivity of the latter after two years of growth on the sandy soil is 1.53–6.41 t/ha, and after three years on the peat soil only 1.74–3.29 t/ha. To increase the productivity of energy plantations of willow on fresh alluvial sandy soils, it is advisable to apply organic and mineral fertilizers, and on peat soils to apply deep plowing, to conduct proper control over the number of weeds, to use the density of planting cuttings about 20 000 plants ha and a 4-year biomass harvest cycle.
 Conclusions. It is established that in alluvial soils of floodplains of Kyiv Polissia rivers, fresh alluvial soils are more suitable for growing willow energy plantations than rich on organic substances moist peat-bog soils. ‘Tordis’, ‘082’, ‘1047’ and ‘Ternopil’ varieties are promising for growing on the sandy soils of the study area, and ‘Zbruch’ for peat soils. Considering the low fertility of the studied variants of marginal lands, in order to increase the efficiency of cultivation of energy biomass of willow on them, first of all, it is necessary to improve the water-physical properties of soils.

Cross‐validation of stagewise mixed‐model analysis of Swedish variety trials with winter wheat and spring barley

AbstractIn cultivar testing, linear mixed models have been used routinely to analyze multienvironment trials. A single‐stage analysis is considered as the gold standard, whereas two‐stage analysis produces similar results when a fully efficient weighting method is used, namely when the full variance–covariance matrix of the estimated means from Stage 1 is forwarded to Stage 2. However, in practice, this may be hard to do and a diagonal approximation is often used. We conducted a cross‐validation with data from Swedish cultivar trials on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to assess the performance of single‐stage and two‐stage analyses. The fully efficient method and two diagonal approximation methods were used for weighting in the two‐stage analyses. In Sweden, cultivar recommendation is delineated by zones (regions), not individual locations. We demonstrate the use of best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) for cultivar effects per zone, which exploits correlations between zones and thus allows information to be borrowed across zones. Complex variance–covariance structures were applied to allow for heterogeneity of cultivar × zone variance. The single‐stage analysis and the three weighted two‐stage analyses all performed similarly. Loss of information caused by a diagonal approximation of the variance–covariance matrix of adjusted means from Stage 1 was negligible. As expected, BLUP outperformed best linear unbiased estimation. Complex variance–covariance structures were dispensable. To our knowledge, this study is the first to use cross‐validation for comparing single‐stage analyses with stagewise analyses.

The Finnish of Rautalampi and Värmland

In this paper some of the features of the Finnish spoken in the former great-parish of Rautalampi and Värmland are discussed. These two Finnish varieties are, owing to their common historical background, closely affiliated, both being defined as Eastern Finnish Savo dialects. These varieties were isolated from each other for hundreds of years and the circumstances of the two speech communities are in many respects different. The language contact situation in Värmland involves Swedish varieties and Värmland Finnish but limited contact with other Finnish varieties. The contact situation in what once was the great-parish of Rautalampi involves mainly Finnish varieties, both dialects and Standard Finnish. Social and economic circumstances have also had an effect on the contact situations, especially since the 19th century when Finland was separated from Sweden and industrialization made its definite entrance into both areas. The differing language contact situations have in some respects yielded different results. This paper provides examples of the differences, which have occurred as an effect of the circumstances in Rautalampi and in Värmland. I provide examples from the phonological, morphological, lexical, and syntactic levels and discuss them in light of the language contact situation in these areas.

Loss and preservation of case in Germanic non-standard varieties

This paper deals with inflectional change in Germanic standard and non-standard varieties, challenging the standard model of phonologically driven case loss in favour of a model that allows for interaction between phonological, syntactic, and purely morphological processes. After providing evidence from the language histories of the modern, standardised varieties of High German and Swedish which calls into question the exclusive role of phonology, we concentrate on two Germanic non-standard varieties: Visperterminen Alemannic, a successor of Old High German, and Övdalian, which stems from Old Dalecarlian (Old Swedish is used as a proxy to Old Dalecarlian). Both can serve as a testing ground for system-internal morphological change, as they carry on specific phonological aspects of their ancestral varieties, and have not been subject to excessive language contact that could have triggered external simplification processes. Using these non-standard varieties as an empirical base, we examine the patterns of loss of inflectional case marking and corresponding compensation strategies on the level of the nominal phrase. It can be shown that, while there are extensive syncretisms in noun inflection, these are systematically compensated for in the noun phrase for dative, but not for the nominative-accusative syncretism. The systematic (non-)compensation in the noun phrase can be explained by word order. Based on our results, we propose an alternative model for morphological change in Germanic that is less prone to counterevidence from non-standard varieties.

Science and proven experience: a Swedish variety of evidence-based medicine and a way to better risk analysis?

A key question for evidence-based medicine (EBM) is how best to model the way in which EBM should ‘[integrate] individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence’. We argue that the formulations and models available in the literature today are modest variations on a common theme and face very similar problems when it comes to risk analysis, which is here understood as a decision procedure comprising a factual assessment of risk, the risk assessment, and the decision what to do based on this assessment, the risk management. Both the early and updated models of evidence-based clinical decisions presented in the writings of Haynes, Devereaux and Guyatt assume that EBM consists of, among other things, evidence from clinical research together with information about patients’ values and clinical expertise. On this A-view, EBM describes all that goes on in a specific justifiable medical decision. There is, however, an alternative interpretation of EBM, the B-view, in which EBM describes just one component of the decision situation (a component usually based on evidence from clinical research) and in which, together with other types of evidence, EBM leads to a justifiable clincial decision but does not describe the decision itself. This B-view is inspired by a 100-years older version of EBM, a Swedish standard requiring medical decision-making, professional risk-taking and practice to be in accordance with ‘science and proven experience’ (VBE). In the paper, we outline how the Swedish concept leads to an improved understanding of the way in which scientific evidence and clinical experience can and cannot be integrated in light of EBM. How scientific evidence and clinical experience is integrated influences both the way we do risk assessment and risk management. In addition, the paper sketches the as yet unexplored historical background to VBE and EBM.

Language contact and V3 in Germanic varieties new and old

Certain recently-attested varieties of Germanic V2 languages are known to deviate from the strict V2 requirement characteristic of the standard. This is the case, for example, for Kiezdeutsch, a new German dialect, as well as urban vernacular varieties of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish: descriptively speaking, in these varieties, subject-verb inversion may be absent under certain well-defined conditions. In this article I outline those conditions and the type of syntactic analysis required to account for them, claiming that an articulated left periphery is needed to account for the findings. The similarity of the V3 patterns found in these new varieties, which are geographically isolated from each other but which share a characterization in terms of the demographics of their speaker groups, invites a diachronic account in terms of language contact. I argue that transfer cannot account for V3, but that a scenario of sequential simplification and complexification is able to do so. Finally, turning to Old English, which exhibits similar (though not identical) V2/V3 alternations, I argue that a similar synchronic analysis can be upheld and that its diachronic origins may well also have been similar—a case of using the present to inform our approach to the past.

Seed Yield of Norwegian and Swedish Tetraploid Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.) Populations

While tetraploid plants of red clover are taller, have thicker stems, and have broader leaves that altogether result in a higher forage yield compared to diploids, they generally have substantially lower seed yields than diploid plants. Tetraploid red clover can be induced chemically by colchicine or nitrous oxide (N2O) and sexually by union of unreduced gametes. The average seed yield of tetraploid red clover in Norway is 60% of the diploid yield, while in Sweden it is 75%. One objective of this paper was to examine whether there is a difference in seed yield among chromosome doubled tetraploids and crossed tetraploids. A second objective was to investigate differences in seed yield and seed yield components in Norwegian and Swedish tetraploid populations. The third objective was to study which yield component most correlates with the seed yield per hectare. Seed production experiments were established at Landvik and Bjørke in Norway and Svalöv and Lännäs in Sweden. Populations made by crossings of tetraploids gave significantly greater yield (p < 0.001) compared to populations that were made by chromosome doubling. On average, Norwegian and Swedish varieties had equal yields in both experimental years. Norwegian and Swedish varieties differed mostly in earliness traits. Swedish populations began flowering on average 4 d earlier than Norwegian populations. Genotypic correlations showed that seed yield per flower head was the component with the highest correlation (r = 0.956 and r = 0.977) with yield per hectare in both experimental fields. Results from the second experimental year indicate a trend towards improved seed yield after several cycles of recurrent selection for higher seed yield per flower head.

Swedish spring wheat varieties with the rare high grain protein allele of NAM-B1 differ in leaf senescence and grain mineral content.

Some Swedish spring wheat varieties have recently been shown to carry a rare wildtype (wt) allele of the gene NAM-B1, known to affect leaf senescence and nutrient retranslocation to the grain. The wt allele is believed to increase grain protein concentration and has attracted interest from breeders since it could contribute to higher grain quality and more nitrogen-efficient varieties. This study investigated whether Swedish varieties with the wt allele differ from varieties with one of the more common, non-functional alleles in order to examine the effect of the gene in a wide genetic background, and possibly explain why the allele has been retained in Swedish varieties. Forty varieties of spring wheat differing in NAM-B1 allele type were cultivated under controlled conditions. Senescence was monitored and grains were harvested and analyzed for mineral nutrient concentration. Varieties with the wt allele reached anthesis earlier and completed senescence faster than varieties with the non-functional allele. The wt varieties also had more ears, lighter grains and higher yields of P and K. Contrary to previous information on effects of the wt allele, our wt varieties did not have increased grain N concentration or grain N yield. In addition, temporal studies showed that straw length has decreased but grain N yield has remained unaffected over a century of Swedish spring wheat breeding. The faster development of wt varieties supports the hypothesis of NAM-B1 being preserved in Fennoscandia, with its short growing season, because of accelerated development conferred by the NAM-B1 wt allele. Although the possible effects of other gene actions were impossible to distinguish, the genetic resource of Fennoscandian spring wheats with the wt NAM-B1 allele is interesting to investigate further for breeding purposes.

Effect of region on the uncertainty in crop variety trial programs with a reduced number of trials

Results from crop variety trials may vary between geographical regions because of differences in climate and soil types. Results are usually presented at regional level. To evaluate the importance of the regions used in the Swedish variety trial programs, we examined which regions produced similar levels of yield and similar ratios in yield between cultivars; the amount by which variance could be reduced by division into regions or clusters of regions; and the amount of trials per region and year, replicates per trial, and trials per year required in order to fulfill specifications on the precision of results. Yield data from spring barley and winter wheat trials performed during 1997–2006 were studied using cluster analysis and variance component estimation. The objectives were (1) to discuss the effects of regions on precision when the number of trials has decreased; (2) to demonstrate the method; and (3) to report the results obtained. In spring barley, clusters of regions produced different levels of yield, but similar yield ratios between cultivars. In winter wheat, clusters of regions giving different yield ratios were identified. When the option of a single analysis was compared with that of region-wise analysis, the reduction in variance with the former, due to the larger number of trials, outweighed the reduction in variance with the latter due to decreased random interaction between trials and cultivars.

Thin-layer chromatographic studies of phenolic compounds in twenty varieties of barley

Phenolic compounds from leaves of 20 varieties of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were investigated employing thin-layer chromatography. Twenty spots out of a total of about 50 spots were selected as marker spots. Strong differences were observed with respect to the marker spots in the 20 varieties, which permitted a rough classification into two groups, designated as A and B. Varieties within Group A appear to have closer genetic affinity than varieties in Group B. In addition, a pedigree chart of the major past and presently cultivated Swedish barley varieties, including those investigated, is included.

Snus does not save lives: quitting smoking does!

Tobacco smoking is steadily declining in Scandinavia, but just under four million people in the Nordic countries are still stuck in the habit of daily smoking, which causes sickness and...

When do adolescents become smokers?

Objective. To follow the development of a class of pupils’ tobacco habits for seven years, and to study differences in tobacco use between girls and boys. Setting. Kronoberg County in southern Sweden. Subjects. All the approximately 2000 pupils were followed from approximately age 12 to approximately age 18. Design. Yearly cross-sectional surveys from 1994 to 2000. Each year, the pupils filled in an established tobacco questionnaire. They did it anonymously in the classroom. Main outcome measures. Percentage of smokers, number of cigarettes smoked per day, and percentage of pupils using “snus”, the Swedish variety of oral moist snuff. Results. From grade 6 of compulsory school to grade 12 of upper secondary school, the proportion of daily smokers rose, from 0.2% to 22% for girls and from 0.5% to 14% for boys. Among both genders, the increase occurred mainly between grades 7 and 10, and from grade 10 onwards the daily smokers were the largest group of smokers. Starting from grade 9, boys had higher total tobacco consumption than girls, as a result of their increased use of “snus”, and at the end of the study 39% of the boys used tobacco compared with 34% of the girls. Conclusion. Studying young people's tobacco habits over time gives an understanding of when preventive measures should be implemented. In order for these to influence attitudes, they should be put in place well before tobacco is introduced.

Genetic diversity of Estonian-grown spring wheat varieties assessed by microsatellite and morphological analyses

In order to select molecular markers suitable for the seed control practice, 12 regionally cultivated spring wheat varieties were analysed by 41 microsatellite markers (SSRs). The analysed group included a pair (‘Satu’-‘Helle’) and a triplet (‘Tjalve’-‘Vinjett’-‘SWEstrad’) of varieties derived from each other. A dendrogram resulting from analysis of the matrix of dissimilarities discriminated all varieties, and in full agreement with the pedigree data, the varieties were divided into three groups consisting of Nordic, German and Dutch varieties, respectively. In the genetically close Nordic subgroup, Swedish varieties ‘Vinjett’ and ‘SWEstrad’ could be distinguished only by three of the analysed 41 SSR markers. An attempt was made to analyse genetic diversity in the group on the basis of morphological characteristics evaluated according to the UPOV guidelines. The clustering of morphological data resulted in a dendrogram which agreed neither with the known pedigree data nor with the conducted SSR analysis. Multilocus SSR analysis revealed heterogeneity in the analysed plant material. In order to monitor inheritance of the detected heterogeneous or null-alleles, six breeding lines derived from the studied varieties were analysed. In two of the breeding lines, non-parental SSR alleles were detected. Outcrossing is suggested as a possible source of the inconsistent alleles. A minimal set of molecular markers needed to identify/verify a variety in a group can be composed of markers amplifying fragments unique in the group length. In this study, identifying markers were found for seven varieties of the group; the remaining five varieties could be identified in the group by combinations of two or three microsatellite markers.

Partial incompatibility between Scandinavian six-rowed barleys (Hordeum vulgare L.) and Hordeum bulbosum L., and its genetical basis

Experiments have been carried out under phytotron conditions concerning the incompatibility found in certain European six-rowed barleys in crosses with Hordeum bulbosum. A cross between the Swedish variety ‘Agneta’ (incompatible) and the Canadian ‘Vanier’ (compatible), including the F1, B1, and B2 generations, has revealed a significant heterosis in production of haploids, ‘Agneta’, with 25.8% fruit set, has yielded as many haploids as ‘Vanier’, with 86.3% fruit set. In F1, however, with 73.1% fruit set, haploid plant yield has been doubled, matching the level of the two-rowed F1,-hybrid ‘Pernilla’ X ‘Sv 73608’. Apparently, the high fruit set in ‘Vanier’ is accompanied by an inferior embryo quality, and vice versa in ‘Agneta’. A two-factor model is suggested and tested biometrically. The “fruit development factor” seems to be nearly completely dominant, uni- or oligogenic, conforming to a simple additive/dominance model. The “embryo quality factor” is additive or weakly dominant: the number of genes involved is uncertain. Both factors are strongly influenced by the environment. Various Norwegian varieties have been tested and most of them resemble ‘Vanier’ in haploid production properties. The implications for breeding are discussed.

Determinants of Grammatical Variation in English (review)

Reviewed by: Determinants of grammatical variation in English ed. by Güter Rohdenburg, Britta Mondorf Alexander Bergs Determinants of grammatical variation in English. Ed. by Güter Rohdenburg and Britta Mondorf. (Topics in English linguistics 43.) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003. Pp. 564. ISBN 3110176475. $101 (Hb). This book contains sixteen thematically arranged empirical studies that deal with various determinants of grammatical variation in English, including the question of constraint interaction, that is, reinforcing versus conflicting factors. Manfred Krug investigates the role of string frequency and transitional probability in grammatical variation and change, and discusses their promoting and retarding effects. Julia Schlüer looks at clashes between the phonology and morphosyntax in four different variables. She argues that grammatical variation might be (co)determined by phonological factors. The complex interplay of factors influencing the behavior and ordering of postverbal constituents lies at the heart of Thomas Wasow’s and Jennifer Arnold’s paper. They argue against categorical factors and in favor of language-processing models based on interacting defeasible constraints. Thomas Gries deals with the more abstract question of ‘structure’ versus ‘function’. In his study on particle placement, he points to the importance of corpus data and multifactorial analyses, as well as the combination of functional and formal aspects. John Hawkins also looks at variability in head-modifier relationships and asks why zero-marked phrases are closer to their heads than those with more complex morphological marking. The issue of cognitive complexity and the horror aequi principle, that is, the avoidance of (semantically unmotivated) identity effects, play a role in Günter Rohdenburg’s paper. He evaluates these two factors in the use of interrogative clause linkers in English. Horror aequi also figures in Uwe Vosberg’s paper on the development of -ing complements in Modern English. Christian Mair also investigates -ing gerunds versus to infinitivals, discussing both grammatical and sociolinguistic factors in the complementation patterns of start and begin. He shows on the basis of extensive corpus data that a successful account needs to invoke both internal and external, synchronic and diachronic factors. The age-old problem of periphrastic versus inflectional comparative forms in English is seen in a new light in Britta Mondorf’s paper on ‘Support for more- support’. She suggests that greater explicitness facilitates processing on all linguistic levels. Dirk Noél compares AcI (accusative infinitive) versus that complement clauses and finds there is much more pragmatics in the sense of text-building practice involved than would appear at first sight. Anette Rosenbach explores iconicity and economy as influential factors in grammatical variation. In her diachronic study on the two possessive structures of English, she concludes that iconicity and economy start off as joined forces and only later become oppositions. Anatol Stefanowitsch also investigates the two genitives of English. From the viewpoint of construction grammar he argues that the observed variation patterns do not stem from animacy, givenness, or syntactic weight, but from distinct role constructions and relations. For Stefanowitsch, the aforementioned factors only figure in subordinate cases of specification and stylistic influences. Olga Fischer investigates the idea of grammaticalization in its relation to linguistic reality. She is interested in what Determination involves and how synchronous factors may have long-term repercussions in linguistic structures. Peter Siemund takes a crosslinguistic perspective in his paper on intensifiers and reflexives. On the basis of data from varieties of English, German, Swedish, Mandarin, and many other languages, he suggests that the variability observed in English and its varieties is not language specific, but reflects general and typologically attested principles. Lieselotte Anderwald also employs a comparative perspective in her paper on negation in nonstandard English. Her detailed description of varietal negation patterns emphasizes markedness and constructional iconicity as typologically valid factors. Sali Tagliamonte investigates have versus have got and got in three geographical varieties of British English. She finds a similar directionality of change and consistent patterning in all [End Page 288] three varieties and concludes that this is a case of syntactic persistence and of...

The Hybrid Triticum Turgidum Ssp. Dicoccum × Dasypyrum Villosum and The Cross and Backcrosses to Breadwheat, T. Aestivum

Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum was crossed to Dasypyrum villosum. The primary hybrid was crossed to T. aestivum cv.‘Chinese Spring’, and the resulting triple hybrid was backcrossed twice to the Swedish variety ‘Kadett’ and ‘Chinese Spring’. The seed set was higher when ‘Kadett’ served as the recurrent parent (3 % in the triple hybrid and 15 % in BC1), than it was with ‘Chinese Spring’ (0.8 and 1 %, respectively). The plants of BC, and BC, had brittle rachis, and spike morphology varied from short and club-like to long and sparse. The pollen grain stainability in BC1 and BC2 plants ranged from 0 to 65 % and 14 to 91 %, respectively. There was little correlation between pollen grain stainability and seed set. From the triple hybrid to BC2, the chiasma frequency per microsporocyte increased from 12.4 to 35.4. The BC2F2 and F3 plants are evaluated for agronomic traits.