Swamp Type Research Articles

Determination of rank and petrographic composition of Jurassic coals from eastern Surat Basin, Australia

Petrographic analysis and rank determination were carried out on coals from a Jurassic sequence in eastern Surat Basin, Australia. The coals consist mainly of exinite-rich clarite, with desmocollinite as dominant maceral of the vitrinite group. Petrographically there is no significant variation in the composition of the coals. A herbaceous swamp type, free from severe oxidation/ dehydration, appears to have been a dominant depositional environment during the peat accumulation. The coal rank ranges from sub-bituminous B to high-volatile bituminous C/B. Vitrinite reflectance/ depth profile shows a uniform increase in coalification with depth of burial.

Transition from Clastic to Peat Sedimentation in Appalachian Basin Pennsylvanian Swamps in West Virginia and Pennsylvania: ABSTRACT

Paleobotanic, sedimentologic, and lithologic analyses of 34 core samples of underclay from the New River and Kanawha Formations of the proposed Pennsylvanian System stratotype, West Virginia, and 14 samples from strip mines in the Llewellyn Formation from the anthracite fields, Pennsylvania, indicate that more than half of the coal beds studied began forming in response to changing sedimentation and edaphic conditions that were facies independent. Peak formation was a consequence of factors that favored increased organic accumulation in swamps previously dominated by clastic deposition (clastic swamps). The underclay beds grade upward from gray mudstone that is intensely rooted, but otherwise free of plant fossils, to fissile, vitrain-rich, rooted, black shale containing bundant plant fossils, to coal. The black shale flora consists of lycopod, pteridosperm, and calamite branches and large trunks. Foliage is absent because it was destroyed by rooting and decay. The trunks are lying in situ. They are unidirectionally oriented in places, and usually associated with Stigmaria rooted hummocks. Trunk accumulations are never associated with flood-transported or lacustrine sediments. Trunks were preserved when a rising water table led to a reduced oxidation potential in the underlying mud. The change from clastic sedimentation to peat formation was rapid in most swamps, as evidenced by a transition zone only a few millimeters thick. However, evidence of longer transition stages is present for some swamps where as much as 0.5 m of black shale was deposited. Occa ionally, several cycles of underclay-black shale formation were repeated before peat accumulation began. The transitional process could have been arrested at any time before ideal peat-forming conditions were attained. The gradual transitions from clastic to organic sedimentation suggest that swamp types form a continuum between clastic and peat swamp end members. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1452------------

Phylogenetical and ontogenetical studies on the molecular weight heterogeneity of bovine serum transferrin.

Antitransferrin (Tf) rabbit serum was highly specific: it reacted with Tfs of ruminants, such as European breeds and Zebu breeds of cattle, Bali cattle, banteng, swamp and river types of water buffalo, anoa, goat, sheep, deer, antelope, camel, and giraffe, but did not react with serum of other non-ruminant species, such as pig, wild boar, hippopotamus, horse, rabbit, rat, chicken, etc. Electrophoresis of Tf and immunoglobulin G (IgG) complexes was carried out using sodium dodecyl sulfate--polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Within ruminants, the following species showed two Tf molecules on SDS-PAGE; European and Zebu cattle, Bali cattle, banteng, two types of water buffalo, and two species of anoa. Other ruminants, sheep, goat, deer, antelope, camel, and giraffe, etc., showed only one Tf molecule. The Tf heterogeneity in molecular weight was, thus, restricted to Bos, Bubalus, and Anoa. The molecular weight of Tf of water buffalo was slightly larger than that of cattle on the gel. The peptide pattern from cyanogen bromide cleavage of Tf of the water buffalo differed clearly from that of cattle. Fetal Tf showed only one molecule during development, but a newborn calf has two Tf molecules, (one large and one small) within 18 hr after birth. We suggest, therefore, that the small molecules formed during the last month of gestation. The peptide patterns of adult and fetal Tfs cleaved by cyanogen bromide differed with regard to the two large peptides; fetal Tf, lacking the second-largest peptide, had twice the amount of the largest peptide compared with adult Tf. From these results, we suggest that a change in peptide sequence occurs from the last month of gestation, when the largest peptide is degraded to the second largest. However, a Tf-like protein detected in the liver microsomal fraction has only one molecular size, both in adult and in fetal livers.

Preliminary Study of Some Vegetation Types of the Pantanal, Mato Grosso, Brazil

The Pantanal is the region on the Brazil-Bolivia frontier in the Paraguay river basin, that is predominantly but not exclusively covered by various types of swamp vegetation. The vegetation of the area was studied by extensive collecting and through measuring trees on five one-hectare plots of cerrado and semi-deciduous forest. The region consists of various types of swamp, gallery forest, lake margin scrub forest, semi-deciduous forest, and several forms of cerrado and savanna. The vegetation is made up of species derived from the cerrado of Central Brazil, the Chaco and Amazonia. It also includes many widespread but few endemic species. Little vegetation remains undisturbed due to the influence of cattle, fire and man. Good examples of the various vegetation formations can still be found and are in urgent need of conservation.

Geomorphology and Subsurface Ceology of the Alluvial Plain of the lower Yahagi River, Central Japan

No all-inclusive reports have been made on the morphology of the alluvial plain and the alluvial fills of the lower Yahagi River. The authors investigated them through aerial photographic surveys and analysis of many boring data.This alluvial plain morphology is characterized by the presence of numerous small microuplands all over the plain (Fig. 1). Although the area corresponds with the natural levee-back swamp type of the ordinary rivers, the channel pattern at present shows the braided one of bed morphology. The authors recognized it has a connection with the geology of the drainage area. A larger part of the drainage basin of the Yahagi consists of granitic rocks, so in spite of the natural levee-back swamp type, the braided pattern characteristic of the river transporting gravels is predominant near as far as the mouth of the River (Fig. 14). Numberless small micro-uplands are due to the micro-uplands in the braided channels, moreover they are supposed to have been made into “shima-batake” (micro butte-like uplands) by artificial changes of prolonged paddy field cultivation.Whereas the sedimentary structure of this alluvial fills at the coastal area represents a well stratified slaty one (Fig. 5, 6, 7), the structure at the inland area north of the New Tokaido Line has a disordered and confusive one (Fig. 8, 9, 10). The authors concluded that these depend upon the expanse of the transported bed loads by tidal or off-shore currents in the open sea and the lens-like deposition of coarse materials in the channel belts on the alluvial upland or in the closed sea.Using measured 14C age of these layers at the coastal area, the lower sands (LS) accumulated from about 10, 000 years B. P., and the middle muds (MM) about 7, 000 years B. P. and the upper sands (US) about 4, 500 years B. P. (Fig. 15). The coast of the maximum “Jomon” transgression may have lain a little north of the New Tokaido Line. By rapid and succesive alluviations, the coast at the age of late “Yayoi” may have lain near at the line which links Isshiki with Kira.Wider buried terrace exists beneeth the Okazaki district (Fig. 7, 8, 9, 11), and the authors named it the Okazaki buried terrace (Fig. 4). This corresponds with the Koshido terrace on the upper Yahagi River. But they are discontinuous on the projected longitudinal profile (Fig. 13). The authors explained it by the presence of the conspicious gorge between Okazaki and Toyota, as the longitudinal profiles on the alluvial plain and buried valley reveal two graided profiles at the gorge as well as those of the Koshido-Okazaki buried terraces.

Vertical distribution of biological activity in peat of some virgin and drained swamp types

Vertical distribution of biological activity in peat of some virgin and drained swamp types

The swamp-breeding mosquitos of Uganda: records of larvae and their habitats

Some 246 species of mosquitos are known to occur in Uganda. Of these, 92 (37·4%) have been recorded as breeding in swamps, and the present paper brings together published data and the results of work on the collection and identification of larvae from habitats in a wide variety of types of swamp between 1955 and 1958. Notes on the occurrence and habitats of the larvae are given under each species.In the present work, only 58 species were found breeding, but these included six new swamp records. Only 26 species appear to breed exclusively in swamps. In addition to the species identified, larvae representing some 14 unrecognised and probably undescribed species were collected. The majority of the swampbreeding species are Culicines, the Anophelines comprising only 21·7 per cent.The swamp environment in Uganda, with respect to the breeding of mosquitos, is extremely varied. Some possible classifications of the many and various swamps found in the country are given. The distribution of certain species of mosquitos is more or less limited to certain types of swamp This is briefly discussed and examples are given. There is also a definite zonal distribution of some species within a swamp,e.g., Culex (Culex) grahamiTheo.,C. (C.) guiartiBlanch, andFicalbia (Ficalbia) malfeytiNewst. occur only in peripheral zones. In general, the interior of the large swamps is unfavourable to the breeding of Anophelines, but Culicines are very abundant there.Breeding of mosquitos is profoundly affected when swamps are altered by human interference. In certain cases this has resulted in increased production of Anophelines, with the consequent aggravation of the malaria situation.It is concluded that, from the point of view of human disease, the swamps of Uganda (especially in their natural untouched state) are not as dangerous as previously thought.

The Effects of Flooding on a Small Marsh in Central Connecticut

The Connecticut State Board of Fisheries and Game, as part of its wetlands program, purchased Charter Marsh in 1949. The area, comprised of 240 acres, was established as a refuge for waterfowl production and as a feeding and resting area during migrations. The study was conmenced on Fehruary 1, 1952 and completed in June, 1953. The present report presents the data dbtained on the mammal populiation during the study period. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of James Bishop and Milton Arnold of the Game Management Division of the Connecticut State Board of Fisheries and Game. The first records of Charter Marsh concern its value as a commercial cranberry bog. Cranberries were raised as early as 1861 and as late as the early 1900's. The bog was divided into an upper section to impound water and a lower section in which cranberries were grown. The dikes were constructed to provide adequate water that could be controlled by sluices to protect the cranberries from frost and insect depredation. The marsh, during recent years, was neglected. However, the local residents utilized it for blueberrying, cranberries, trapping, hunting and fishinfg. The refuge is located in Tolland County, Connecticut, one and one-half miles west of the village of Tolland. It lies in a narrow valley bisected by the Skungamaug River. Oak and white pine are the dominant trees that surround the marsh. The stand was second growth, varying from 20 to 80 years of age, with an average of 40. The watershed is computed as 4.1 square miles and consists principally of woodland. The lower comparttnent had reverted to the initial stages of the red maple swamp type, while the upper contained the entire ecolgical sere from the open marsh to the oak-hard maple forest type. Eight islands, varying in size fromn 0.21 to 1.24 acres, are located in the upper section. Each was forested with the mixed hardwood type in the 20 to 40 age class. Construction of an earthen dike by the State Board of Fisheries and Game, using the original southern dike 'as the base, was completed during October, 1951. The dike is 821 feet long with a top width of 10 feet. The impounded area comprised 121 acres.

The Hippopotamus in Gambia, West Africa

Gambia, a British colony and protectorate, extends about 200 miles inland from the west coast of Africa and is, at the most, 30 miles wide. It is traversed from east to west by the River Gambia, navigable for about 150 miles by oceangoing ships, and flanked by a low-lying alluvial plain behind which, on either bank, rises the Senegambia Plateau. At several points along the middle Gambia, and more frequently in the upper Gambia, this plateau forms part of the river bank. Tidal effects are felt along the river throughout the Gambia, the tide being about three feet at MacCarthy Island. In the dry season, from October until June, the river current is weak, and brackish water extends inland along the river about 100 miles. The river bank rises gradually to a height of about five feet above average dry-season level at MacCarthy Island. Eastwards from there it rises more rapidly to about 40 feet at the east end of the Protectorate (Svensson, 1933, quoting Cooper). During the rainy season (June or July to the end of September), the alluvial plains on each side of the river are converted into swamps. Svensson (loc. cit) has distinguished two major swamp types: those formed on the higher parts of the river flats from the rain water, which never are influenced by the tide; and those on the lower river flats formed by rain and inundation by the river, whether through floods or tide. Rice is grown in both types of swamp. Other food crops are grown at the foot of, or on, the plateau (Huxley, 1949). Gambia has an insecure agricultural economy. The chief crop is groundnuts, which are the only major export of the country. Of the other crops grown (millets sorghums, guinea corn, maize, and rice) no shortage is apparently felt by the Africans except in rice. A certain amount of rice must be imported into Gambia each year, and is available to Africans through trading stores. It is not only a local food shortage that has focused attention on poor rice production, but also that, should the bottom drop from the groundnut market, Gambia will find herself in a more critical economic situation. An enhanced rice yield could help to alleviate world food shortage, and at the same time improve the economic position of Gambia. Rice has been grown in the Gambia for at least two and a half centuries, and the area cultivated might, with a proper understanding of the factors at present limiting production, be increased. One of the limiting factors has long been regarded by the Africans to be the depredation of their crops by the hippopotamus. The hippopotamus has only partial protection in Gambia, so that, each year for a number of years, a few marauding individuals have been shot. This did not appear to endanger the status of the hippopotamus in the Gambia, and it perhaps appeased the African farmers. In 1947, however, 53 were shot by an approved African hunter. This slaughter emphasized the conflicting interests of rice cultivation and hippopotamus conservation. The administrators of Gambia were anxious to overcome the impasse, and accordingly the Colonial Office helped finance an expedition, to be organized by the Oxford University Exploration Aug., 195S 299

Soil‐freezing and forest‐cover

An important though little‐investigated problem is the relationship of soil‐freezing to forest‐cover. With the idea of determining some of the phases of soil‐freezing under different cover‐conditions, measurements of depth of frost in the ground were undertaken at the Gale River Experimental Forest in northern New Hampshire. In agreement with the exploratory character of this study, no attempt was made to analyze statistically the correlation between the depth of frost in the ground and the individual factors affecting soil‐freezing. Any definite trends, however, were noted and additional measurements taken in order to throw some light on the influence of some of the important factors.The study was initiated in the fall of 1937. On three 0.1‐acre plots established in the spruce flat and spruce swamp types and in an open field, measurements of frost‐depth were continued for three successive winters. In 1939 two additional plots, one in a fir flat, the other in a northern hardwoods type, were established and measurements continued through the winter of 1939–40. In addition to measurements on these plots, numerous borings were made in surrounding areas differing from the sample areas in drainage and soil‐texture. Most of the measurements were taken with a frozen‐soil boring tool developed especially for this purpose by B. C. Goodell.

Aceretum rubri: The Red Maple Swamp Forest of Central Long Island

No red maple forest type is recognized by the Society of American Foresters in their Forest Cover Types of the United (1932). This is due to the small area of the usual stands of this type. They state, however, with respect to their type 26, Black ash-American elm-red maple, that in New England red maple often predominates and may be found in pure stand. Type 26 occurs throughout the Lake States and New England and adjacent regions. It is described as occupying moist to wet muck or shallow peat soils, in swamps, gullies and small depressions of slow drainage or in elongated areas along small sluggish streams, occasionally covering extensive swamps. It is a minor type unimportant commercially. From the forester's point of view, the red maple swamp type here under consideration is nothing more than a variant. From an academic standpoint and for more intensive plant socioldgical studies it is well to recognize it as a distinct association, especially since the codominants of type 26 are absent from these stands.