Swamp Type Research Articles

Transforming Swamp Buffaloes to Producers of Milk and Meat Through Crossbreeding and Backcrossing

There are two major types of water buffaloes in the world, the riverine type and the swamp type. The total number of Swamp buffalo is 37.6 M and represents 21.8% of the world’s buffalo population. The swamp buffaloes have played a major role in draft animal-dependent farming system. But intensified rice production became more pronounced in irrigated areas and this has led to increased utilization of small farm machineries, displacing significantly the draft buffaloes for land tillage. To some extent, the introduction of tractors for land preparation and transport for corn, sugarcane and other crops in production areas has similar effect. Utilization of the existing population of swamp buffaloes to meet the growing domestic demand for milk and meat, against the background of increasing farm mechanization, is a good reason to transform the huge number of draft animals into producers of milk and meat. According to the UNDP/FAO-assisted project in the Philippines carried from 1982 to 1998, that crossing swamp buffalo and riverine buffaloes, despite the differences in chromosome numbers, is producing crossbreds with high growth rate potentials and milk production abilities several folds over the swamp buffalo parents. The known fact that swamp and riverine buffaloes have different chromosome number, the diploid chromosome number of the swamp buffalo is 48 and that of the river buffalo is 50. When crossbreeding between the 2 buffalo types occur, males and females of the F1 generation are heterozygous for the fusion and are apparently fertile with chromosome 2n = 49. Three-way crossbred hybrids were obtained by (native buffalo x Murrah x Nili Ravi) or (native buffalo x Nili Ravi x Murrah). They had two chromosome categories viz. 2n=49 and 2n=50, respectively. Crossbreeding Swamp with Riverine Breed is done for quality beef . Most of the NT produced TenderBuff is farm-bred or purchased from other suppliers as swamp buffalo yearlings and growth out for a further 8 – 16 months to achieve target weights on the pastures. The reproductive performance of F1 females produced out of crossing Murrah buffalo and Philippine carabao are not different. Assessment of the fertility of F1 bulls was made on the basis of the pregnancy rate obtained from AI on Philippine carabaos using frozen semen. The data indicated that there was no significant difference between the pregnancy rate of the Philippine carabaos inseminated with either Murrah buffaloes or F1 frozen semen. However, a signigicant difference on conception rate was observed (P < 0.05) compared to hybrid with 2n = 50 chromosomes. The calving rate of hybrids with 2n = 49 chromosomes decreased by 17.77 – 17.89% and the total calves reduced by 1.33 – 1.54 heads from the first calving to age of 11 years. The fundamental initiative that is most consistent with the envisaged improvement in the productivity of the carabao is the establishment of germplasm pools from where superior materials can be obtained on a sustainable basis such as Gene Pools for Selected Native Philippine Carabao (PC), Gene Pool for Riverine Buffalo for Meat Improvement, Gene Pool for Improvement for Milk Production. From the above point of view, the future will see sustained and more intensive efforts to pursue the goal of transforming genetically the traditionally draft animal to producer of milk and meat and eventually establishment of viable and progressive buffalo-based enterprises. Key words: Swamp buffalo, crossbreeding, backcrossing

Nutritional Management for Buffalo Production

The buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is an important contributor to milk, meat, power, fuel and leather production in many developing countries. Buffaloes can be categorized into Asian and Mediterranean buffaloes. Asian buffalo includes two subspecies known as Riverine and Swamp types. Riverine (water buffalo) and Swamp buffaloes possess different genetics (50 vs. 48 chromosomes, respectively), morphology (body frame, body weight, horn shape and skin color) and behavior (wallowing in mud or water) and thus, are reared and used for different purposes. Low per head milk yield, poor reproductive performance (seasonal breeding behavior, anestrous, and longer calving interval) and low growth rate in buffaloes have been attributed to insufficient supply of nutrients. In many parts of Asia, where the buffalo is an integral part of the food chain and rural economy, irregular and inadequate availability of quality feedstuffs and their utilization are hampering the performance of this unique animal. Balanced nutrition and better management can enhance buffalo productivity. Many efforts have been made in the last few decades to improve nutrient supply and utilization in buffaloes. Recent research on locally available feed resources such as crop residues, and industrial by-products, dietary addition of micronutrients, use of performance modifiers and use of ruminally protected fat and protein sources have shown significant potential to improve growth, milk yield and reproductive performance of buffaloes. However, a number of issues, including establishment of nutrient requirements for dairy and beef, development of buffalo calf feeding systems, nutritional management of metabolic and reproductive anomalies, and understanding and exploitation of the buffalo gut ecosystem, need to be addressed. Extensive coordinated research and extension efforts are required for improved buffalo nutrition in developing countries.

English

Hanson Quarry Products Europe and the statutory nature conservation body for England, English Nature (now Natural England), have a Partnership Agreement whereby Hanson in 2002 became the UK Habitats Champion for reed bed and fen recovery. Both reed bed and fen habitats are identified as a priority to halt their recent decline and to be enhanced and expanded in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP). The mineral extraction industry can significantly contribute to the 2010 national recovery targets. In 2003 English Nature commissioned, and subsequently published in 2007, 'Design & Reporting Criteria' to guide and facilitate the successful creation of reed bed, other swamp and fen vegetation as an after use of mineral extraction sites, and their subsequent reporting for inclusion in the national UK and local Habitat BAP inventories and audits. Reed bed is a specific type of open-water transition fen dominated by the common reed Phragmites australis and fen a generic term for this and other wetland types influenced by water that has been in contact with rock or soil. The term 'fen' embraces a very wide range of vegetation composition from low sedge and moss dominated to tall reed and tall-herb swamp types, and grading into the ‘wet’ end of meadows and woodland types. The scope for the creation of the various types of fen is dependent on a number of key physical factors (climate, hydrology, substrate (soils and geology) and fertility), but also in practice, land management and the availability of plant material. The physical factors were broadly considered for reed bed and 65 other published types of fen occurring in the UK from which the scope and opportunity for restoration in mineral workings, and generic design guidelines for their creation, are set out for use by planners and other practitioners alike. In concert, 'Reporting Criteria' were devised to enable the consistent and objective reporting of reed bed swamp and fen habitats created as a result of mineral site restoration. The reporting criteria are in line with the UK National Biodiversity Network definitions enabling incorporation of the data into UKBAP & Local BAP inventories. Additional

Molecular cloning, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of inflammatory cytokines of swamp type buffalo contrasting with other bubaline breeds

The current research concerned in the cloning, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of inflammatory cytokine (IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha) genes from swamp buffalo and two bubaline breeds, CB (cross between swamp and riverine type buffalo) and the Bulgarian Murrah buffalo. Multiple sequence comparison showed a high homology between the bubaline breeds, which ranged from 99.3% to 100.0% similarity, whereas from 98.6% to 99.0% compared to cattle. The phylogenetic analysis had confirmed and justified the degree of relationship between these bubaline species and their distinctness to each other by the bootstrap value (%) generated. These findings were discussed with particular attention to the diversity of the inflammatory cytokine proteins within closely related species. The result of this study concluded that a small difference in the cytokine structures might be the reason behind or has a contributory factor on the previous reports about the existence of disease resistance. However, in-depth study is necessary to further qualify these findings.

Dairy buffalo breeding in countryside of China

Chinese buffalo is of swamp type, mainly distributed in countryside of 18 provinces in southern China. China has the third population of buffalo in the world. There are 22.75 million buffaloes in China in 2005, representing 17.37% of all cattle in the whole country. Historically Chinese buffalo is mainly used for drought since their milk production is very low with an annual milk yield of 500–700 kg. Therefore, it is important to improve them to change into dairy buffalo through crossbreeding with exotic river type dairy buffalo breeds. Murrah and Nili–Ravi, the most famous river type dairy buffalo breeds in the world, were introduced from India and Pakistan in 1957 and 1974, respectively and used to crossbreed with indigenous Chinese buffalo for genetic improvement. The effect is very prominent that the performance of crossbred has been improved significantly after several decades and the milk yield reaches 1200–2000 kg. Recent years in countryside of China, buffalo rearing has been changed from extensive and dispersive model in the past into specialized small or medium dairy herd model for the present along with the rapid development of dairy buffalo breeding and the model of dairy buffalo breeding sub–district has been formed. This article introduces briefly that the system of dairy buffalo breeding as well as producing, processing and selling of buffalo milk under the current condition and the prospects of dairy buffalo development in countryside of China.

Comparative assessment of Th1 and Th2 cytokines of swamp type buffalo and other bubaline breeds by molecular cloning, sequencing and phylogenetics

Comparative assessment of Th1 and Th2 cytokines of three bubaline breeds namely swamp buffalo, its crossbreed with riverine buffalo (CB), and the improved breed of Bulgarian Murrah buffalo (BMB), was done by molecular cloning, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The Th1 cytokines analyzed included IL-2, IL-12p35, IL-12p40, and IFN-γ while Th2 cytokines included IL-4 and IL-10. Both groups showed strict conservation in the putative secondary structures and amino acid residues within the tribe Bovini, which indicated functional cross-reactivity. Nucleotide sequence homology ranged from 98.6 to 100.0% and was lowest for IL-12p35. With regard to amino acid sequence, the lowest homology was observed in IL-4 with 97.8%. This substitution was mainly due to differences in mRNA splicing. The phylogenetic relationship of the buffalo breeds was analyzed and showed them as a cluster comprised mainly of species belonging to the order Artiodactyla, including cattle and pigs. A deeper knowledge of these cytokine structures will favor understanding of water buffalo immunology and how much it differs from its closest subspecies and other animals.

THE VEGETATION OF ARTIFICIAL DRAINAGE CHANNELS WITHIN GRAZING MARSHES IN THE UK: HOW DOES ITS COMPOSITION CORRESPOND WITH DESCRIBED COMMUNITIES?

Large areas of British coastal and riverine floodplains support grazing marsh, a landscape representing an intermediate stage in the reclamation of natural wetlands toward intensive agriculture. Once disregarded for nature conservation, in the late twentieth century it was realised that grazing marshes were significant for wetland birds and invertebrates, as well as the key refuge for aquatic vegetation in lowland Britain. The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) surveyed this vegetation, focussing on drainage channels and their banks. In multivariate analysis, vegetation composition was related to channel dimensions, soil type, land use, channel management and the drainage function of the channel. CEH attempted to relate the channel vegetation assemblages to those aquatic and swamp types described within the British National Vegetation Classification and the wider literature. Although we sometimes achieved this aim channels often appeared to contain intimate concatenations of types that could not be simply separated into recognised aquatic and swamp associations. Thus, channel vegetation may be represented either as combinations of described communities or as unique multilayered associations, comparable with woodlands. The degree to which aquatic and swamp elements occur in predictable combinations is discussed. Despite being artificial habitats, drainage channels have intrinsic biodiversity value, meriting recognition within European systems for the protection of biodiversity.

The Vegetation of Artificial Drainage Channels Within Grazing Marshes in the UK: How Does its Composition Correspond with Described Communities?

Large areas of British coastal and riverine floodplains support grazing marsh, a landscape representing an intermediate stage in the reclamation of natural wetlands toward intensive agriculture. Once disregarded for nature conservation, in the late twentieth century it was realised that grazing marshes were significant for wetland birds and invertebrates, as well as the key refuge for aquatic vegetation in lowland Britain. The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) surveyed this vegetation, focussing on drainage channels and their banks. In multivariate analysis, vegetation composition was related to channel dimensions, soil type, land use, channel management and the drainage function of the channel. CEH attempted to relate the channel vegetation assemblages to those aquatic and swamp types described within the British National Vegetation Classification and the wider literature. Although we sometimes achieved this aim channels often appeared to contain intimate concatenations of types that could not be simply separated into recognised aquatic and swamp associations. Thus, channel vegetation may be represented either as combinations of described communities or as unique multilayered associations, comparable with woodlands. The degree to which aquatic and swamp elements occur in predictable combinations is discussed. Despite being artificial habitats, drainage channels have intrinsic biodiversity value, meriting recognition within European systems for the protection of biodiversity.

Fluxes of carbon dioxide and methane from swamp and impact factors in Sanjiang Plain, China

The fluxes of CO2 and CH4 emission of the two types of primary swamp were measured in Sanjiang Plain using the opaque chamber and gas chromatogram technique. The mean value of ecosystem respiration flux in continuously inundated swamp ecosystem is 548.04 mg · m−2 · h−1, lower than that of the seasonal inundated swamp (713.08 mg · m−2 · h−1). The peaks concentrated on July and August which are the growing period of the vegetation. CH4 emission was different from the respiration flux of ecosystem. The CH4 flux of continuously inundated swamp was 12.80 mg · m−2 · h−1, larger than that of the seasonal inundated swamp (8.56 mg · m−2 · h−1), and they were varied at different periods, the continuously inundated swamp emitted CH4 mainly from July to September, whereas from last August to middle September in the seasonal inundated swamp. The ecosystem respiration flux of the swamp has the significantly positive correlation with the soil temperature (0–10 cm depth) and the water temperature, but CH4 emission was associated with the soil temperature in a certain degree. The CH4 emission from swamp depends on the integral function of water table and soil temperature.

Genetic relationships between swamp microenvironment and sulfur distribution of the Late Paleozoic coals in North China

The genetic relationships between microenvironment of the Late Paleozoic peat-forming swamp and the sulfur contents of coal in North China have been studied by using coal-facies parameters involving gelification degree, tissue preservation index, vegetation index, transportation index, groundwater influence index, water medium indicator and swamp type index, etc. Among the various controlling factors of swamp microenvironment, swamp water medium elaborates a dominant action to sulfur accumulation in the marine-influenced coals; while coal-forming plant type, hydrodynamic state and water covering depth are more important to sulfur accumulation in the fresh water-influenced coals. Geological fractionation of sulfur isotopes reflects that sulfur accumulation experienced multi-stages evolution. Pyrite sulfurs formed earlier than organic sulfur and the sulfur isotopic δ 34 S p shows lower values than organic sulfur isotopic δ 34 S o . In the brine-influenced coals, sulfur accumulation processed relatively a long time span, the distribution of sulfur isotopes dispersed，and the coals are provided with high sulfur contents. In the fresh-water-influenced coals, sulfur accumulation occurred mainly at the syngenetic-penesyngenetic stage and the early diagenetic stage, and the total sulfur is lower and mainly composed of organic sulfur.

Understorey bird species diversity and abundance in three forest types of Semuliki National Park, Uganda

Sande, E. 2000. Understorey bird species diversity and abundance in three forest types of Semuliki National Park, Uganda. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 64–68. Semuliki National Park is a rich lowland forest in terms of biodiversity. The bird species list currently stands at 428, of which 31 species occur nowhere else in East Africa. Although the park was severely encroached for agricultural activities, all the encroachers were evicted and many species of birds still survive. A total of 61 species with 1270 individuals were trapped from all the forest types. There was no significant difference in the species diversity between the swamp, mixed and Cynometra forest types. The Little Greenbul, Yellow-whiskered Greenbul, Slender-billed Greenbul, and Olive Sunbird were significantly more abundant in the mixed forest than in the swamp forest while the arboreal insectivore frugivores, terrestrial insectivores and sallying insectivores were significantly more abundant in the Cynometra than in the swamp forest type.

Fluorescence microscopic investigations of the main lignite seam from the Neyveli Lignite field, Tamil Nadu, India

The organic (maceral) composition of the main lignite seam encountered in bore-holes NLE-27, 35 and 36 from mine III of Neyveli Lignitefield has been investigated under fluorescence mode (blue light excitation). The lignites are of the sub-bituminous C stage (R0 max. 0.39% ASTM classification) and predominate in the huminite group of macerals followed by those of the liptinite and inertinite groups. Liptinite macerals, viz., liptodetrinite, bituminite, chlorophyllinite and various forms of resinite and perhydrous huminite, usually indistinct under normal mode are recognized and more information about their characters and mode of occurrence has been presented. The data generated have led to a more detailed understanding of the source material, swamp type, and genesis of Neyveli's main lignite seam.

Pre-European settlement conditions and human disturbance of a coniferous swamp in southern Ontario

A vegetation survey at Oil Well Bog, southern Ontario, suggested that the central Picea mariana - Sphagnum (black spruce swamp) community represented the most mature point in the wetland succession. Pollen analysis of short sediment cores from beneath three major communities in the wetland (black spruce swamp, white pine swamp, and low shrub swamp) showed that the black spruce community only became established in the last 100 years. From around 2000 BP, the wetland was dominated by low shrubs with a tall shrub element. Upland forest composition around the wetland changed around 500 BP, with a decrease in percentages of Fagus and an increase in Pinaceae. At the same time trees colonized parts of the wetland. When the upland forest was cleared by European settlers (ca. AD 1830-1845), low shrub communities reestablished, suggesting that initially the wetland surface became wetter. Over time, the present-day mosaic of swamp types began to develop. The pollen analyses showed that the black spruce swamp is present as a result of changes in the wetland hydrology induced by human activity, and the fragmentary low shrub vegetation community (which contains locally rare plant species) represents a relic of the pre-European settlement wetland community.Key words: paleoecology, wetland development, hydroseral succession.

Phylogenetic relationship among all living species of the genus Bubalus based on DNA sequences of the cytochrome b gene.

The cytochrome b genes of all living species of Bubalus, including the river type and the swamp type of domestic buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), were sequenced to clarify their phylogenetic relationships. These sequences were compared together with the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and banteng (Bos javanicus) sequences as an outgroup. Phylogenetic trees of Bubalus species based on the DNA sequences of the cytochrome b gene demonstrated that the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), endemic to the Philippines, could be classified into the subgenus Bubalus, not the subgenus Anoa. The divergence time between the lowland anoa (B. depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (B. quarlesi) was estimated at approximately 2.0 million years (Myr), which is almost the same as the coalescence time for the Bubalus sequences. This large genetic distance supports the idea that the lowland anoa and the mountain anoa are different species. An unexpectedly large genetic distance between the river and the swamp type of domestic buffaloes suggests a divergence time of about 1.7 Myr, while the swamp type was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw (1.5 Myr). This result implies that the two types of domestic buffaloes have differentiated at the full species level.

タマラオ(Bubalus (B.) mindorensis)ヘモグロビンの等電点電気泳動法による表現型とアジアスイギュウのそれとの比較

Hemoglobins (Hb) from seven captive tamaraws were examined and compared to that of water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis): five river type and eleven swamp type; and two species of anoas: two lowland anoas (Bubalus (Anoa) depressicornis H. Smith, 1827) and eight mountain anoas (B. (A.) quarlesi Ouwens, 1910) using ultrathin polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing (PAGIF). The Hb phenotype of the tamaraws displayed a monomorphic single band, compared to two bands (major and minor bands) in water buffaloes and one to three allelic bands found in polymorphic anoa individuals. We designate this band HbTamaraw, having the highest isoelectric point (pI) focused at the same level as the minor band. Dissociation of globin chains by urea-PAGIF showed that HbTamaraw consists of a single type of α and β globins, whose α focused at the same pI level as the α minor band of water buffalo, as it is also true between the single α band of the anoa and theα major band of water buffalo focused at a lower pI. The β band of the tamaraw shared the same pI level to the β hands of both the water buffaloes and lowland anoas. The HbTamaraw differs by having a single α component from that of the water buffaloes, and an a band with a higher pI level from that of the anoas.

External Characters and Karyotypes of the Captive Tamaraws, Bubalus (B.) mindorensis, at the Gene Pool in the Island of Mindoro, Philippines

Measurement values of sixteen external characters and karyotypes were described for one female and five males of the adult captive tamaraws, Bubalus (B.) mindorensis endemic to the island of Mindoro. Principal component analyses among bubaline species, using nine or ten of the characters as variables, derived more than 95% of total variance on the first component axis, in which the tamaraw was located almost at the midpoint of two distant bubaline groups : the dwarf water buffaloes of Sulawesi (Anoa depressicornis and A. quarlesi) and the Asiatic water buffaloes (the swamp and the river types of Bubalus bubalis) . All the six tamaraws had 46 chromosomes in diploid form (2N) and 58 as the fundamental number (FN) including the sex chromosomes. In contrast, all the bubaline species of Syncerus, Bubalus and Anoa were reported to have FN=60 with exception of the swamp type of the Asiatic buffalo (FN=58 but 2N 48) . The X chromosome of the tamaraws was the largest acrocentric, and the Y was also acrocentric, probably among the smallest acrocentrics. The karyotype of the tamaraws differs from that of the swamp type buffalo both by one additional pair of metacentrics and the two decreased pairs of acrocentrics in the autosomes.

Ballast Brook and Beaufort Formations (late Tertiary) on Northern Banks Island, Arctic Canada

Excellent exposures of late Tertiary terrestrial sediments occur in the Ballast Brook region of northwestern Banks Island (Canadian Arctic Archipelago). These sediments contain abundant concentrations of organic detritus as well as autochthonous peats which can be traced for some kilometres. All of these deposits were previously assigned to the Beaufort Formation. In this paper, the deposits formerly grouped as the Beaufort Formation are subdivided into two formations: the newly named Ballast Brook Formation and the Beaufort Formation. The Ballast Brook Formation is characterized by alluvial sand, silt-clay and peat with compressed, altered wood. Paleobotanical evidence indicates an early to mid-Miocene age, with mid-Miocene being the most probable. This formation is believed to overlie the Eureka Sound Group and is in erosional contact with the overlying Beaufort Formation. Plant macrofossils from the Ballast Brook Formation include a number of taxa now found in northern hardwood and southern boreal forests, while the prominent peat which characterizes the formation contains a number of taxa that now grow or could be expected to grow in a cypress swamp type of environment. For example the conifer Glyptostrobus is well represented in the peat. The Beaufort Formation at Ballast Brook consists of alternating sands and gravels, and silt in the lower part. It is characterized by an abundance of unaltered wood and other plant materials. Paleobotanical evidence indicates an early Pliocene to early late Pliocene age (i.e. approx. 5-3 Ma). Like the Ballast Brook Formation, the Beaufort Formation contains an abundance of fossils of conifers, but in contrast with the Ballast Brook Formation nearly all of them belong to Pinaceae, a group well represented in the present boreal forest. The Beaufort Formation also contains insect fossils, which are very rare in the Ballast Brook Formation. Together, the insect and plant macrofossils suggest an environment similar to, but richer in species (some extinet; others now found only in Asia) than present boreal forest and taiga. The Ballast Brook Formation flora resembles the flora from Mary Sachs gravel (formerly Beaufort Formation) on southwestern Banks Island and the flora from the West River beds on the Northwest Territories mainland. It also is similar to a 40 Ar 39 Ar dated mid-Miocene flora from east-central Alaska and to the Mamontova Gora (mid-Miocene) flora from Russia.

Facies and genesis of Carboniferous coal seams of Northwest Germany

In order to get detailed information about the facies and genesis of Upper Carboniferous coal seams of Northwest Germany, maceral analyses of complete seam profiles (Westphalian B-D, mainly Westphalian C) were carried out. Four main facies and twelve subfacies could be distinguished. The main facies are: 1. (1) The sapropelic-coal facies, consisting of fine-grained inertinite and liptinite, which forms from organic sediments deposited at the bottom of moor lakes. 2. (2) The densosporinite facies which is high in inertinite and liptinite and low in vitrinite. Syngenetic pyrites, clastic layers, thick vitrains and fusains do not occur. This facies originates from peats of ‘open mires’ with higher groundwater table and herbaceous vegetation. The ‘open mire’ was situated in the centre of extensive swamps. Consequently, clastic sedimentation did not affect this swamp type and nutrient supply and pH values were low. 3. (3) The vitrinite-fusinite facies, which is high in vitrinite. This is the result of abundant vitrains. Under the microscope, fusains were mostly identified as fusinite. The vitrinite-fusinite facies originates from a forest mire. More or less abundant seam splits and clastic layers show that rivers flowed in the neighbourhood of this area. 4. (4) The shaly-coal facies, which represents the most marginal part of the former swamp frequently affected by clastic sedimentation. Within the Carboniferous of the Ruhr Region it seems unlikely that the thin coal seams of the Namurian C and Westphalian A1 contain a densosporinite facies. The swamps were situated in the lower delta plain where they were often affected by marine influences. Consequently, coals are high in minerals and sulfur and they are thin and discontinous. The best conditions for the formation of extensive swamps, with open mires (densosporinite facies) in their central parts, prevailed during Westphalian A2 and B1 times. Low contents of sulfur and minerals and high content of inertinite are typical for these coals. Sedimentation mainly took place in the transitional zone from the lower to the upper delta plain. During the Westphalian B2 and C fluvial sedimentation dominated. Within the coal seams minerals, sulfur and pseudovitrinite increase while inertinite decreases. This is the consequence of coal of the densosporinite facies occurring with increased rarity. The coal seams of the Westphalian C2 contain no densosporinite facies because peat formation was restricted by increasing fluvial sedimentation and by a better drainage. As a consequence, extensive swamps with ‘open mires’ in the centre were no longer formed after the formation of the “Odin” seams. Above the “Odin” seams coal of the vitrinite-fusinite facies contains thick-walled torisporinites. Variations and lowering of the groundwater table caused mild oxidative influences during peat formation. This is documented by an increase in pseudovitrinite, the occurrence of torisporinites and the absence of spheroidal sideritic concretions. Sulfur content increases in the absence of the low-ash and low-sulfur coal of the densosporinite facies. In Upper Carboniferous coal seams of the Ibbenbüren Region the inertinite and telocollinite contents are higher than in those of the Ruhr Region. Therefore, variations of the groundwater table have been more pronounced and resulting oxidative influences must have been more severe. Seldom occurring marine and brackish horizons and a higher fusinite (fusain) content indicate a slight elevation of this area. From Early Westphalian D times onward, peat formation was no longer possible because of the better drainage. This resulted in severe oxidative conditions which excluded peat formation.

Identification of crossbred buffalo genotypes and their chromosome segregation patterns.

Chromosome analysis on different breed types of water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) was undertaken to identify their karyotypes and to determine the pattern of chromosome segregation in crossbred water buffaloes. Altogether, 75 purebred and 198 crossbred buffaloes including 118 from Malaysia and 80 from the Philippines, were analyzed in this study. The diploid chromosome number of the swamp buffalo from both countries was 48 and that of the river buffalo was 50, while all F1 hybrids exhibited 49 chromosomes. The F2 hybrids consisted of three different karyotype categories (2n = 48, 2n = 49, and 2n = 50), whereas the backcrosses included two different karyotype categories each, with 2n = 48 and 2n = 49 in the three quarters swamp types and 2n = 49 and 2n = 50 in the three quarters river types. Chi-square tests on pooled data from Malaysia and the Philippines indicated that the distribution of different karyotype categories of F2 animals did not deviate significantly from the 1:2:1 ratio expected if only balanced gametes with 24 and 25 chromosomes were produced by the F1 hybrids. In the three quarters swamp and three quarters river types, the respective karyotypic categories were in ratios approximating 1:1. The distribution of chromosome categories among the F2 hybrids and backcrosses suggests that only genetically balanced gametes of the F1 hybrids are capable of producing viable F2 and backcross generations.

A Comparative Study of Turnover of Body Water and Responses to Heat Stress in Grazing River and Swamp Type Buffaloes

A Comparative Study of Turnover of Body Water and Responses to Heat Stress in Grazing River and Swamp Type Buffaloes