Sustainable Protein Sources Research Articles

Towards Sustainable Protein Sources: The Thermal and Rheological Properties of Alternative Proteins

Reducing meat consumption reduces carbon emissions and other environmental harms. Unfortunately, commercial plant-based meat substitutes have not seen widespread adoption. In order to enable more flexible processing methods, this paper analyzes the characteristics of commercially available spirulina, soy, pea, and brown rice protein isolates to provide data for nonmeat protein processing that can lead to cost reductions. The thermal and rheological properties, as well as viscosity, density, and particle size distribution, were analyzed for further study into alternative protein-based food processing. The differential scanning calorimetry analysis produced dry amorphous-shaped curves and paste curves with a more distinct endothermic peak. The extracted linear temperature ranges for processing within food production were 70–90 °C for spirulina, 87–116 °C for soy protein, 67–77 °C for pea protein, and 87–97 °C for brown rice protein. The viscosity analysis determined that each protein material was shear-thinning and that viscosity increased with decreased water concentration, with rice being an exception to the latter trend. The obtained viscosity range for spirulina was 15,100–78,000 cP, 3200–80,000 cP for soy protein, 1400–32,700 cP for pea protein, and 600–3500 cP for brown rice protein. The results indicate that extrusion is a viable method for the further processing of protein isolates, as this technique has a large temperature operating range and variable screw speed. The data provided here can be used to make single or multi-component protein substitutes.

Alternative and Sustainable Protein Sources in Pig Diet: A Review.

The search for alternative protein sources to soybean meal (SBM) in animal feeding is a strategic objective to reduce production costs and contribute to sustainable animal production. Spirulina, due to the high protein content, has emerged as a potential cost-effective, sustainable, viable, and high-nutritional-value food resource for many animal species. Insect larvae (Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens) are also considered potential alternatives to SBM, given their high edible percentage of almost 100%, as well as a protein value higher than that of vegetable proteins. Rapeseed meal and grain legumes, such as fava beans, peas, lupins, and chickpea, can also be used as locally producible protein ingredients. This study reviews the nutritional value of these potential alternatives to SBM in pig diets, and their effects on animal performance, digestion, immune system, and the physicochemical and sensorial characteristics of meat, including processed pork products. The limits on their use in pig feeding are also reviewed to indicate gaps to be filled in future research on the supplementation level of these potential alternative protein sources in pig diets.

Assessing the feasibility, safety, and nutritional quality of using wild-caught pest flies in animal feed.

Studies have investigated the potential of using farmed insects in animal feeds; however, little research has been done using wild-caught insects for this purpose. Concerns about inadequate quantities collected, environmental impacts, and the spread of pathogens contribute to the preferred utilization of farmed insects. Nevertheless, by harvesting certain pest species from intensified agricultural operations, producers could provide their animals with affordable and sustainable protein sources while also reducing pest populations. This study explores the possibility of collecting large quantities of pest flies from livestock operations and analyzes the flies' nutritional content, potential pathogen load, and various disinfection methods. Using a newly designed mass collection-trapping device, we collected 5 kg of biomass over 13 wk, primarily house flies, from a poultry facility. While a substantial number of pests were removed from the environment, there was no reduction in the fly population. Short-read sequencing was used to compare the bacterial communities carried by flies from differing source populations, and the bacterial species present in the fly samples varied based on farm type and collection time. Drying and milling the wild-caught flies as well as applying an additional heat treatment significantly reduced the number of culturable bacteria present in or on the flies, though their pathogenicity remains unknown. Importantly, these disinfection methods did not affect the nutritional value of the processed flies. Further research is necessary to fully assess the safety and viability of integrating wild-caught insects into livestock feed; however, these data show promising results in favor of such a system.

Dynamic in-vitro system indicates good digestibility characteristics for novel upcycled plant protein; correlation to techno-functional properties

An increasing global population demands the broadening of the plant-based protein portfolio. The high volume of by-products produced across the food industry presents the opportunity to reduce food waste while reclaiming valuable nutrition. The current study examines a novel protein, BRP, extracted from brewers spent grains regarding its techno-functionality and digestibility, in comparison to a variety of proteins including whey, soy, rice and two pea protein sources. Compositional, foaming, emulsifying, structural and rheological properties were examined, while digestion kinetics were determined using the dynamic tiny-TIM in vitro digestion model. BRP performed similarly to whey protein in many respects, demonstrating a high solubility, high nitrogen bioavailability (>90%) and comparable N digestion kinetics, however BRP exhibited no rheological changes over heating. The digestible Indispensable amino acid score for BRP was 67% with lysine as the sole limiting amino acid, a higher value than soy, rice and one of the pea proteins investigated. Industrial relevanceThe production of a protein ingredient from a plentiful and otherwise low-value food processing by-product presents an opportunity for an increased shift towards more sustainable protein sources for the food industry. This protein displays enhanced nutritional characteristics when compared to variety of plant protein sources, and promising functional properties such as a high solubility. This study offers an examination of a novel, upcycled protein ingredient as a potential tool for food manufacturers in the shift towards a more sustainable and secure food future.

Characterization of yeast protein isolates extracted via high-pressure homogenization and pH shift: A promising protein source enriched with essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids.

In the global food industry, plant-based protein isolates are gaining prominence as an alternative to animal-based counterparts. However, their nutritional value often falters due to insufficient essential amino acids. To address this issue, our study introduces a sustainable protein isolate derived from yeast cells, achieved through high-pressure homogenization (HPH) and alkali pH-shifting treatment. Subjected to HPH pressures ranging from 60 to 120MPa and 1 to 10 cycles, higher pressure and cycle numbers resulted in enhanced disruption of yeast cells. Combining HPH with alkali pH-shifting treatment significantly augmented protein extraction. Four cycles of HPH at 100MPa yielded the optimized protein content, resulting in a yeast protein isolate (YPI) with 75.3g protein per 100g powder, including 30.0g of essential amino acids and 18.4g of branched-chain amino acids per 100g protein. YPI exhibited superior water and oil-holding capacities compared to pea protein isolate, whey protein isolate (WPI), and soy protein isolate. Although YPI exhibited lower emulsifying ability than WPI, it excelled in stabilizing protein-stabilized emulsions. For foaming, YPI outperformed others in both foaming ability and stabilizing protein-based foam. In conclusion, YPI surpasses numerous plant-based protein alternatives in essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids contents, positioning it as an excellent candidate for widespread utilization as a sustainable protein source in the food industry, owing to its exceptional nutritional advantages, as well as emulsifying and foaming properties. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study introduces a sustainable protein isolate derived from yeast cells. YPI exhibited considerable promise as a protein source. Nutritionally, YPI notably surpassed plant-based protein isolates in EAA and BCAA contents. Functionally, YPI demonstrated superior water-holding and oil-holding capacities, as well as an effective emulsion and foam stabilizer.

Duckweed protein as an alternative plant-based protein source for dog and cat dry diets.

Duckweed has attracted increasing attention as a high-quality and sustainable novel plant-based protein source. However, little research has been conducted in dogs and cats. We evaluated the effects of inclusion of duckweed protein (Lemna; MCSelect; Parabel; Vero Beach, FL) primarily in replacement of pea protein in dog diets at 0%, 5%, and 10% and cat diets at %, 10%, and 15% on stool quality, nutrient digestibility, and palatability. We hypothesized that duckweed protein would be a viable protein source in both dog and cat diets by showing no detriment to nutritional outcomes. All feeding tests were conducted at an independent research facility (Susquehanna, PA). A standard 2-bowl palatability test over a 2-d period was conducted with adult animals (n = 30 each) to determine intake ratio between test diets (duckweed-containing diets) and control diets (0% duckweed protein). Apparent total tract nutrient digestibility was conducted with 18 adult dogs and 21 adult cats (n = 6 to 7 per diet) with 5 d of diet acclimation followed by 5 d of total fecal collection. Stool quality was evaluated on a 1 to 5 scale where 1 = non-formed or diarrhea and 5 = hard, formed. Palatability data were analyzed using paired t-test (daily consumption) and chi-square test (first choice). All other data were analyzed by ANOVA and contrast (SAS version 9.4). For cats, 10% duckweed had greater (P < 0.05) palatability than control, while no difference was observed between 15% duckweed protein and control. For dogs, 5% and 10% duckweed protein had (P < 0.05) lower palatability, demonstrating a preference to control. Both cats and dogs fed duckweed diets had acceptable stool quality (Mean = 3.4 and 3.3, respectively). No detriments in nutrient digestibility were observed in dogs fed 5% and 10% duckweed protein; however, cats fed 10% and 15% duckweed protein had (P < 0.05) lower dry matter, protein, and energy digestibility vs. control. In conclusion, the data collected indicate that duckweed can be a viable replacement for other plant-based proteins in dog diets at inclusion levels up to 10%; more development is needed for duckweed protein inclusion into cat diets.

New strategy for the biosynthesis of alternative feed protein: Single‐cell protein production from straw‐based biomass

AbstractWith rapid growth of global population, meeting the increasing demand for food has become a significant challenge. This challenge is further compounded by limited arable land and the necessity to address the nutritional needs of both humans and animals. However, the utilization of straw biomass, which is readily available as an agricultural by‐product, presents a sustainable solution to this problem. Microbial fermentation has emerged as a highly effective method for converting non‐food biomass into protein, particularly known as single‐cell protein (SCP). Compared to traditional protein sources, SCP production through microbial fermentation is rapid and efficient, and requires minimal land resources. This review provides a comprehensive review of the research advancements in SCP from agricultural biomass, including pretreatment methods, microbial strains, and fermentation processes involved in the bioconversion of straw biomass. Due to the complexity of straw‐based biomass (SBB), it is essential to customize industrial strains and optimize the fermentation process to achieve the highest protein yield and productivity. Additionally, improving the compatibility between tailored processes and cost‐effective industrial strains can lead to the production of protein substitutes that are not only highly nutritious but also economically viable. Hence, the application of SCP derived from SBB presents a dual solution by reducing the need for managing agricultural residues and providing a sustainable source of protein. However, the production of SCP from SBB also has some limitations, such as protein‐synthesis efficiency, production cost, and difficulty to scale‐up the production process. In the future, there is great potential for significant advancements in the targeted conversion of SBB into protein by customizing high‐performance microbial strains. Several sensor and machine learning technologies will predict and monitor real‐time dynamic changes in the fermentation process of SBB, offering an opportunity to improve the production of sustainable SCP in an environmentally friendly and precise manner.

Diet Specific Protein Deposition of Black Soldier Fly Larvae

This study investigated the protein deposition efficiency of black soldier fly (BSF) larvae. Five-day-old larvae of BSF were fed with pig feed or coconut meal. First, feed restriction was determined by comparing larval weight, the digested feed conversion efficiency (ECD), and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of larvae fed with different amount of feed (e.g., 100%, 80%, and 60%). Second, three feeding strategies were compared: the free feeding group (e.g., F, 100%), the low restricted group (e.g., L, 60%), and the high restricted group (e.g., H, 20%). The survival rate, the larval fresh weight, ECD, FCR, the apparent digestibility of proteins, and the larval protein content were analyzed. The regression equations of protein intake and body protein content were established. The results showed that there were no significant differences in the survival rate and ECD among group F, L and H on both pig feed and coconut meal. The larval fresh weight and FCR were lower with less feed provided. The protein deposition efficiency was higher in pig feed than coconut meal. These findings contribute to optimizing protein supplementation for BSF larvae, enhancing their potential as a sustainable protein source and waste converter

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) protein: Impact of extraction method and cultivar on structure, function, and nutritional quality

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is increasingly gaining traction as a novel and sustainable source of plant protein. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of two protein extraction methods, alkaline extraction coupled with isoelectric precipitation (AE-IEP) and salt extraction coupled with ultrafiltration (SE-UF) in producing hemp protein isolates (pH-HPI and salt-HPI) with high purity and yield. Structural characterization as impacted by extraction method and cultivar was performed and related to functional performance and nutritional quality. Both extraction methods, with carefully selected parameters, resulted in HPI with high purity (86.6–88.1% protein) and protein extraction yields (81.6–87.3%). All HPI samples had poor solubility (∼9–20%) at neutral pH compared to commercial soy protein and pea protein isolates (cSPI, cPPI). A relatively high surface hydrophobicity and low surface charge contributed to such poor solubility of HPI. However, HPI demonstrated similar solubility at acidic pH (50–67%) and comparable gel strength (up to 24 N) to cSPI. Comparing experimental amino acid composition to the theoretical amino acid distribution in hemp protein provided insights to the functional performance of the protein isolates. While pH-HPI demonstrated better functionality than salt-HPI, minimal structural, functional, and nutritional differences were noted among the pH-HPI samples extracted from four different cultivars. Overall, results from this work could be used to guide future attempts to further develop successful protein extraction processes, and to provide valuable insights to propel breeding efforts that target enhanced hemp protein characteristics for food applications.

Exploring the Hepato-Renal Impact of Lead Acetate and in Combination with Defatted Moringa oleifera Seed Meal in Wistar Rats

Lead acetate is recognized for its hepatorenal toxicity, causing harm to the liver and kidneys upon exposure through air, water, or food, thus, leading to severe health issues. Defatted Moringa oleifera seed meal (DMOSM) is valued for its health benefits by offering a protein-rich supplement with antioxidant properties, and serving as a sustainable source of plant-based protein. In this study, the impact of lead acetate exposure and the potential protective effects conferred by DMOSM in male Wistar rats were assessed. The rats were divided into five groups: negative control (Group I), lead acetate exposure (Group II), lead acetate with DMOSM (Group III), sequential lead acetate and DMOSM treatment (Group IV), and DMOSM only (Group V). Serum biochemical parameters were evaluated at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. Results revealed that, at 7 days, lead exposure and DMOSM led to slightly lower total protein. Group II exhibited significantly lower albumin levels, suggesting early liver dysfunction, while urea and creatinine variations indicated a potential renal stress. By 14 days, there was elevated total protein in the leadexposed groups, while DMOSM showed potential hepatoprotective effects, evidenced by significantly lower ALT activity in Group III. At 21 and 28 days, persistent or worsening liver dysfunction was observed in lead-exposed groups, while DMOSM demonstrated protective effects, especially in liver enzymes and renal markers. These findings highlight the complex interplay between lead toxicity and DMOSM-mediated protection. Thus, there is need for further investigation into the underlying mechanisms and therapeutic potential of DMOSM.

Exploiting Locusta migratoria as a source of bioactive peptides with anti-fibrosis properties using an in silico approach.

Edible insects have been proposed as an environmentally and economically sustainable source of protein, and are considered as an alternative food, especially to meat. The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, is an edible species authorised by the European Union as a novel food. In addition to their nutritional value, edible insects are also sources of bioactive compounds. This study used an in silico approach to simulate the gastrointestinal digestion of selected L. migratoria proteins and posteriorly identify peptides capable of selectively inhibiting the N-subunit of the somatic angiotensin-I converting enzyme (sACE). The application of the molecular docking protocol enabled the identification of three peptides, namely TCDSL, IDCSR and EAEEGQF, which were predicted to act as potential selective inhibitors of the sACE N-domain and, therefore, possess bioactivity against cardiac and pulmonary fibrosis.

Assessing the impact of insect protein sources on intestinal health and disease: insights from human ex vivo and rat in vivo models.

The exploration of edible insects, specifically Alphitobius diaperinus and Tenebrio molitor, as sustainable sources of protein for human consumption is an emerging field. However, research into their effects on intestinal health, especially in relation to inflammation and permeability, remains limited. Using ex vivo and in vivo models of intestinal health and disease, in this study we assess the impact of the above insects on intestinal function by focusing on inflammation, barrier dysfunction and morphological changes. Initially, human intestinal explants were exposed to in vitro-digested extracts of these insects, almond and beef. Immune secretome analysis showed that the inflammatory response to insect-treated samples was comparatively lower than it was for samples exposed to almond and beef. Animal studies using yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and buffalo (Alphitobius diaperinus) flours were then used to evaluate their safety in healthy rats and LPS-induced intestinal dysfunction rats. Chronic administration of these insect-derived flours showed no adverse effects on behavior, metabolism, intestinal morphology or immune response (such as inflammation or allergy markers) in healthy Wistar rats. Notably, in rats subjected to proinflammatory LPS-induced intestinal dysfunction, T. molitor consumption did not exacerbate symptoms, nor did it increase allergic responses. These findings validate the safety of these edible insects under healthy conditions, demonstrate their innocuity in a model of intestinal dysfunction, and underscore their promise as sustainable and nutritionally valuable dietary protein sources.

“Proteins from Blue Foods to Meet the Demand in the Food Sector a Review”

This review examines the importance of proteins obtained from aquatic sources, such as “blue foods,” in solving the increasing global protein needs. It also explores the current problems in the food sector, such as finding sustainable protein sources, and evaluates the role of blue foods as a promising substitute to traditional protein sources. Lastly, the review provides an overview of historical and current trends in protein consumption, with a focus on the sustainability, nutrition, and economic feasibility of blue foods. While blue foods offer advantages such as high nutritional value, lower environmental impact, and potential economic benefits, they also face challenges including overfishing, habitat destruction, and regulatory issues. This assessment highlights both the potential and the limitations of blue foods, providing a comprehensive overview of the current state and future directions in this field.

High-pressure homogenization combined with alcohol treatment is effective in improving the sensory and techno-functional characteristics of Chlorella pyrenoidosa

Chlorella pyrenoidosa (CP) is a microalga that has been used as a sustainable protein and food source. However, its green color from chlorophyll and low processability have limited its broad application in food. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of high-pressure homogenization (HPH) in conjunction with alcohol treatment in removing chlorophyll from CP and its impact on the quality and techno-functionality of the resulting decolorized CP meal. The method was found to be efficient, eco-friendly, and allowed easy recovery of CP components and solvents. It removed chlorophyll effectively and increased CP whiteness from 43.5 ± 1.26 to 86.6 ± 0.55. The combination processing strategy also significantly (p < 0.05) improved the protein quality (e.g., essential amino acid ratio) and functionality (e.g., foaming, emulsification, and gelation) of CP. The results of morphological and electrophoretic analyses indicated that the aggregation behavior of CP molecules was altered in the decolorized sample. Thermochemical and infrared analyses revealed that the decolorization processing reduced CP's heating enthalpy and disrupted hydrophilic β-turns on its globulin surface, causing more random coils. These findings suggest that HPH combined with alcohol treatment can enhance CP sensory characteristics and functionality, which would facilitate its application in the food industry.

Legumes: A Vehicle for Transition to Sustainability.

Legumes are an excellent source of protein and have been used in the human diet for centuries. Consumption of legumes has been linked to several health benefits, including a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and certain types of cancer, while legumes' high fiber content promotes digestive health. Aside from the positive health benefits, one of the most significant advantages of legumes is the low environmental footprint of their cultivation. They can be grown in a variety of climates and soil types, and they require less water and fertilizer than other crops, making them a sustainable option for farmers. Thanks to their nutritional and physicochemical properties, they are widely used by the food industry since the growing popularity of plant-based diets and the increasing demand for alternatives to meat offers the opportunity to develop legume-based meat substitutes. As the use of legumes as a source of protein becomes widespread, new market opportunities could be created for farmers and food industries, while the reduction in healthcare costs could have a potential economic impact. Achieving widespread adoption of legumes as a sustainable source of protein requires coordinated efforts by individuals, governments, and the private sector. The objective of this narrative review is to present the benefits coming from legume consumption in terms of health and environmental sustainability, and underline the importance of promoting their inclusion in the daily dietary pattern as well as their use as functional ingredients and plant-based alternatives to animal products.

Flours from fermented lentil and quinoa grains as ingredients with new techno-functional properties

The need to provide novel, nutritious plant-based products requires seeking high-value, sustainable protein sources, like quinoa and lentils, having an increased digestibility and lacking antinutrients. Fungal fermentation has evidenced enhanced nutritional value of flours obtained from these grains. However, research into techno-functional properties, essential to the new product development, is lacking. This study investigated the techno-functional properties of flours made from lentil and quinoa after fermenting them with Pleurotus ostreatus and subjecting them to two drying techniques (lyophilisation and hot air drying). In both cases, the fermentation led to noteworthy improvements in swelling and water holding capacity, especially in those lyophilised than those dried. In contrast, the emulsifying, foaming, thickening, and gelling capacities decreased significantly. The loss of abilities was more severe for dried grains than for lyophilized ones. The thermomechanical analysis of the fermented flours showed lower thickening and gelling potential compared to untreated flours. Microscopy images revealed that the state and structure of starch granules were affected by both fermentation and drying processes. Starch granules in lentils were partly pre-gelatinised and trapped in the cotyledon cell, resulting in limited thickening and gelling abilities. In contrast, in quinoa, starch underwent pre-gelatinisation and retrogradation during the fermentation process, promoting the production of resistant starch and increasing fibre content. This study presents the potential of treated flours as ingredients possessing unique attributes compared to protein and fibre-rich conventional products.

Unveiling the potential of pressurized liquid extraction for recovering protein fractions from broken black beans: Insights into thermal and structural properties

Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) is an emerging eco-friendly approach for recovering protein from broken black beans (BBB). This investigation explored the thermal and structural characteristics of BBB protein fractions recovered via PLE compared to the emerging technologies of ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extractions (UAE and MAE) and conventional heating-stirring extraction (HSE) using water and alkaline water (pH 9.0) as solvents. Alkaline water extractions exhibited superior protein yields and purity, resulting in protein aggregates of smaller sizes (<150 nm) in the BBB protein concentrates recovered by PLE and UAE. In comparison, larger aggregates of protein flour were formed when applying HSE (>450 nm), regardless of the solvent used. Nevertheless, heightened pH levels induced substantial modifications in protein conformation, reducing the denaturation temperature (Td) and enthalpy. β-strands and random coil conformations dominated the secondary structure, while α-helix was solely observed in alkaline PLE. The selection of the extraction technique had a pronounced influence on protein partial unfolding, leading to diverse protein profiles and properties. PLE (water) presented a viable and eco-friendly alternative for attaining protein recovery with high purity (86.7%) and thermal stability (Td: 78.7 °C, enthalpy: 207.20 J/g). BBB protein research advancements offer opportunities for sustainable and nutritious plant-based protein sources with global economic and social benefits.

The Genome of the Yellow Mealworm, Tenebrio molitor: It's Bigger Than You Think.

Insects are a sustainable source of protein for human food and animal feed. We present a genome assembly, CRISPR gene editing, and life stage-specific transcriptomes for the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, one of the most intensively farmed insects worldwide. Long and short reads and long-range data were obtained from a T. molitor male pupa. Sequencing transcripts from 12 T. molitor life stages resulted in 279 million reads for gene prediction and genetic engineering. A unique plasmid delivery system containing guide RNAs targeting the eye color gene vermilion flanking the muscle actin gene promoter and EGFP marker was used in CRISPR/Cas9 transformation. The assembly is approximately 53% of the genome size of 756.8 ± 9.6 Mb, measured using flow cytometry. Assembly was complicated by a satellitome of at least 11 highly conserved satDNAs occupying 28% of the genome. The injection of the plasmid into embryos resulted in knock-out of Tm vermilion and knock-in of EGFP. The genome of T. molitor is longer than current assemblies (including ours) due to a substantial amount (26.5%) of only one highly abundant satellite DNA sequence. Genetic sequences and transformation tools for an insect important to the food and feed industries will promote the sustainable utilization of mealworms and other farmed insects.

Starch removal treatment, not the specific thermal processing techniques, improved protein digestibility of corn (Zea mays) gluten meal

Corn gluten meal (CGM) is a promising alternative protein source for human consumption, yet it remains under utilized due to its low protein digestibility and poor functionality. Thermal processing techniques have been demonstrated to effectively improve digestibility of plant proteins. The presence of other components such as starch also play a vital role in protein digestibility. However, the impact of starch removal and various thermal processing methods (such as microwaving, extrusion, heating, and baking) on the in vitro protein digestibility of CGM, as well as the underlying mechanisms, remains unexplored. This study demonstrated that the applied thermal processing did not significantly enhance CGM protein digestibility, while starch removal using α-amylase significantly improved protein digestibility by 26.3%–37.8% (P < 0.05). The elevated protein digestibility resulting from starch removal could possibly be attributed to the improved water absorption capacity and zeta potential, reduced disulfide bond content and particle size, and changes in secondary structures from ordered β-sheet to disordered random coils. The altered surface morphology with more pores and lower aggregation, as evidenced by SEM and CLSM images, also contributed to the increased digestibility after starch removal. This study presented novel evidence supporting the potential applications of CGM with removed starch as a sustainable protein source with enhanced digestibility and has unraveled its underlying chemistry mechanism.

Mapping the position and attitudes of stakeholders towards the utilization of the black soldier fly using MACTOR Tools: A study in Depok City, West Java, Indonesia

Depok City is located between the cities of Jakarta and Bogor. The population of the city has reached more than 2,000,000 people. This has consequences on the issue of waste, especially food waste. Food waste responsible for 8–10% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. To support sustainable development, it is very important to reduce the amount of food loss. In 2019, food waste reached 931 million tons of food worldwide. Retailers and households are the biggest contributors to this waste at 13% and 61% respectively. This food waste exacerbates economic, environmental and social problems. The black soldier fly (BSF) insect (Hermetia illucens) can overcome the negative impact on the environment caused by food waste and at the same time can provide a sustainable source of protein. BSF larvae can digest food waste and convert it into biomass. However, the application of the use of the black soldier is not yet widely known in the City of Depok. For that, we need a comprehensive approach that involves various stakeholders. One of the most important elements in the successful application of the black soldier fly to the waste problems in Depok City is stakeholders mapping.