Sustainable Protein Sources Research Articles

Breeding and biotechnology approaches to enhance the nutritional quality of rapeseed byproducts for sustainable alternative protein sources- a critical review

Global protein consumption is increasing exponentially, which requires efficient identification of potential, healthy, and simple protein sources to fulfil the demands. The existing sources of animal proteins are high in fat and low in fiber composition, which might cause serious health risks when consumed regularly. Moreover, protein production from animal sources can negatively affect the environment, as it often requires more energy and natural resources and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, finding alternative plant-based protein sources becomes indispensable. Rapeseed is an important oilseed crop and the world’s third leading oil source. Rapeseed byproducts, such as seed cakes or meals, are considered the best alternative protein source after soybean owing to their promising protein profile (30%–60% crude protein) to supplement dietary requirements. After oil extraction, these rapeseed byproducts can be utilized as food for human consumption and animal feed. However, anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) like glucosinolates, phytic acid, tannins, and sinapines make them unsuitable for direct consumption. Techniques like microbial fermentation, advanced breeding, and genome editing can improve protein quality, reduce ANFs in rapeseed byproducts, and facilitate their usage in the food and feed industry. This review summarizes these approaches and offers the best bio-nutrition breakthroughs to develop nutrient-rich rapeseed byproducts as plant-based protein sources.

Parasalinivibrio latis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from the distal gut of healthy farmed Asian Seabass (Lates calcarifer).

Asian Seabass (Lates calcarifer) is widely farmed as a sustainable source of protein for countries in the tropical Indo-West Pacific region. However, microbial species of the gut microbiome of healthy Asian Seabass remain largely uncharacterized and uncultured. Here, we analysed the microbial composition along the gastrointestinal tract of a farmed healthy Asian Seabass. We used different cultivation approaches to obtain isolates from the seabass intestinal tract and describe the isolation and characterization of a novel strain, TLL-SE01T. Analysis of the strain's 16S rRNA gene indicates that the strain belongs to the family Vibrionaceae with Photobacterium damselae as its closest relative, albeit sharing only 94.8% (aligned region 1553bp) nucleotide identity. Comparative genomic analysis with all validly published Vibrionaceae species with available genomes revealed average nucleotide identity (ANI) and DNA-DNA hybridisation (DDH) values of around 70% and 24% respectively to strain TLL-SE01T, which are well below proposed thresholds for species delineation (ANI, 95-96%; DDH, 70%). The alignment fraction and ANI genus demarcation boundaries for all genera in the Vibrionaceae family were determined for which strain TLL-SE01T is well below the calculated values, indicating that it belongs to a novel genus. Single- and core-gene phylogenetic analysis places strain TLL-SE01T in a monophyletic clade, further supporting its designation to a novel genus. Phenotypic comparison between strain TLL-SE01T and its close relatives indicated additional differences, such as growth response at different salt concentrations and different metabolic capabilities. Based on genotypic, phylogenetic and phenotypic differences to other Vibrionaceae species, we propose a novel species in a new genus, Parasalinivibrio latis gen. nov. sp. nov. and strain TLL-SE01T (= BCRC 81435T = JCM 36283T) as the type strain.

Reviving the entomophagy tradition among the younger generation: An application of the theory of planned behavior

Edible insects are sustainable sources of animal protein. Although insects are novel foods in Western societies, the Asia-Pacific region preserves traditional entomophagy cultures. In parts of the Asia-Pacific region, the amount consumed gradually declined with each passing generation. Reviving the entomophagy tradition among the younger generation is crucial for the future market for edible insects. This study examined young consumers’ perceptions of edible insects and the psychological determinants of their consumption. This study was conducted in Japan, which is a typical example of generational differences in insect consumption due to traditional eating habits. We adopted the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to identify psychological determinants of entomophagy and conducted two online surveys among 391 and 342 young Japanese consumers, respectively. We extended the original TPB by adopting a treatment–control design in which respondents in the treatment group received information on product availability. The results revealed that edible insects remained a novel food among respondents. The TPB revealed that subjective normsand perceived behavioral control (PBC) were determinants of consumption intention, whereas intention and PBC were determinants of behavior. Information on product availability had a significant positive impact on intention; however, it had little impact on behavior. Furthermore, we found that food safety control was the most valued product attribute and hedonistic attributes were prioritized over functionalist attributes. Based on these findings, this study proposes possible promotional strategies that provide valuable insights for marketers and policymakers in Japan and other countries to revive the entomophagy tradition among younger generations.

Uncovering the Potential Somatic Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (sACE) Inhibitory Capacity of Peptides from Acheta domesticus: Insights from In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion.

Entomophagy is being proposed as a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source. Additionally, insect consumption is also associated with some health benefits mediated by bioactive compounds produced during gastrointestinal (GI) digestion. The antihypertensive property resulting from the inhibition of the somatic angiotensin-converting enzyme (sACE) by small peptides is one of the most common bioactivities related to insect consumption. This study aimed to investigate the potential sACE-inhibitory capacity of six peptides (AVQPCF, CAIAW, IIIGW, QIVW, PIVCF, and DVW), previously identified by the in silico GI digestion of Acheta domesticus proteins, validate their formation after in vitro GI digestion of A. domesticus by LC-MS/MS, and assess the bioactivity of the bioaccessible digesta. The results showed that the IC50 values of AVQPCF, PIVCF, and CAIAW on sACE were 3.69 ± 0.25, 4.63 ± 0.16, and 6.55 ± 0.52 μM, respectively. The obtained digesta demonstrated a sACE-inhibitory capacity of 77.1 ± 11.8 µg protein/mL extract (IC50). This is the first report of the sACE-inhibitory capacity attributed to whole A. domesticus subjected to GI digestion without any pre-treatment or protein concentration. This evidence highlights the potential antihypertensive effect of both the digesta and the identified peptides.

Evaluating Black Soldier Fly and Bloodworm Larvae Meals as Sustainable Protein Sources for Growth and Survival of Red Hybrid Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) in the Nursery Phase

Aims: This study aimed to assess the effects of using insect larvae meals, such as BSF and BW larvae, as alternative feeds to commercial pellets on the growth performance and survival of Oreochromis spp. at the nursery stage. Study Design: This study followed the randomized control treatment with three different diet. Place and Duration of Study: This study was carried out at the Fisheries Research Institute Glami Lemi (FRIGL) in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, within 35 days from July to August 2023. Methodology: A total of 360 red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) fingerlings weighing 0.62 ± 0.06 g were randomly distributed into 12 rectangular aquarium tanks (250mm) at a stocking density of 30 fish per tank. They were fed with commercial pellets (CP), Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae, and Bloodworm (BW). The feed amount was calculated at 10% of the total body weight per tank, with feeding conducted three times daily. The experimental setup was performed in triplicate. For the analysis of growth performances and fish survival, sampling was conducted weekly. Results: BSF larvae meal had high lipid and protein content, measuring 35.35 ± 0.21% and 29.67 ± 0.98%, respectively. BW larvae meal also showed high lipid and protein content, with 28.23 ± 1.33% and 27.94 ± 0.52%, respectively. Fish fed with BSF and BW larvae exhibited significantly higher survival rates, 93.3 ± 3.3% and 86.7 ± 14.5%, respectively, compared to the control group. Meanwhile, the group fed with the commercial pellet showed the lowest survival rate, just 74.4 ± 12.6%. Fish fed with the BW larvae recorded the highest weight gain, 1.07 ± 0.16 g, followed by fish fed with BSF larvae, 0.66 ± 0.11 g, and then fish fed with commercial pellets, 0.41 ± 0.09 g. Conclusion: Both BSF and BW larvae exhibited significant growth response properties to tilapia fingerings compared to commercial pellets. The findings from this study are promising and should be further verified at the farm scale.

Pulses as Sustainable Protein Sources: Benefits, Drawbacks, and Gaps

Abstract: Pulses have redeemed the interest in terms of a sustainable and healthy diet due to their high protein content. Furthermore, the vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals they contain also make them more valuable nutritionally. A sustainable diet should improve public health and food security and has a low environmental footprint. Pulses have been considered one of the emerging plant food proteins. Although they have beneficial components such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and antioxidants, many drawbacks limit their use to consumers and the food industry. One of the drawbacks is their incomplete proteins due to the lack of sulfur-containing amino acids in their protein profile. Furthermore, the protein digestibility of pulses is low due to the antinutritional compounds they contain. The other drawback of pulses is their beany flavor and bitter taste that limits the acceptability of consumers. From the consumer's point of view, the other disadvantage is the laborious and timeconsuming preparation period. : This article provides a concise overview of the current state of knowledge on pulses as sustainable protein sources, underlining the gaps that limit their extensive application in the food industry. Based on the available scientific facts on pulses, finding an efficient method for removing beany flavor and overall sensorial acceptability and antinutritional factors, thus increasing protein digestibility is crucial. The most promising option to increase pulse protein digestibility seems to combine conventional and novel technologies that can modulate digestibility by different mechanisms, such as the removal of antinutritional factors, protein denaturation, and the design of the food matrix.

Edible Insects: Consumption, Perceptions, Culture and Tradition Among Adult Citizens from 14 Countries.

Although edible insects (EIs) are encouraged as a sustainable source of protein, their consumption is not as generalised as other types of food that are internationally accepted. While in some regions of the world, EIs are part of the gastronomic and cultural traditions, in other regions, people are not so receptive to this type of food, and some people even express some disgust towards it. Hence, this research focused on the habits of the participants regarding the consumption of insects as well as their perceptions about EIs being or not a part of the local culture or gastronomic patrimony. A questionnaire survey was implemented in fourteen countries (Brazil, Croatia, Greece, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Mexico, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, and Turkey), and globally, 7222 adult participants responded to the questionnaire. SPSS software (version 28) was used to process the data and carry out chi-square tests and Factor Analyses (FA). The obtained results showed significant differences between countries for all the questions included in the survey, either those regarding the habits of the participants or their opinions about the facts linked with EI tradition or cultural aspects. It was found that participants from Mexico consume EIs more than in all other countries and that strong motivations that would lead to consumption among those who do not consume include curiosity and food shortage. The solution obtained with FA considering the ten statements of the scale consisted of two factors: F1-Culture and Tradition of EIs (α = 0.675) and F2-Acceptance of EIs (α = 0.614). In conclusion, the consumption of EIs and the perceptions of people are highly variable according to geographic location and cultural environment.

Exploring the Possibilities of Incorporating Edible Insects into a Vegetarian Diet: A Survey of Vegetarian Consumer Acceptance.

Due to environmental, health, and ethical concerns, more consumers are reducing their meat consumption or giving it up entirely. Plant protein is most often chosen as a sustainable source of protein. Still, recently, edible insects have been gaining popularity as a source of alternative protein with a better nutritional profile. However, there is no information on whether vegetarians can accept insects. An online survey was conducted with a sample of 790 vegetarians to address this gap. The findings of this survey are crucial in understanding the potential acceptance of insects in vegetarian diets. We found that 13% of the respondents approve of using processed insect protein in vegetarian dishes. Moreover, 9% of the respondents declared that they had knowingly consumed insects before; of these, 42% of them found the taste of the insects to be neutral, 16% found it to be very good, and 25% found it to be good. The level of insect acceptance was influenced by the type of vegetarian diet and its duration of use. Furthermore, pesca-vegetarians and flexi-vegetarians were the most likely to eat insects for ecological reasons (x¯ = 3.54 ± 0.74; x¯ = 3.00 ± 0.67, respectively). These findings do not eliminate the possibility of using edible insects in vegetarian diets but support their partial acceptance.

Topic: Physicochemical, functional and antioxidant properties of cricket protein powders produced by microwave-assisted spouted bed drying

The study examined the quality of cricket protein powder (CPP) dried using microwave-assisted spouted bed drying (MSBD) and oven drying (OD). Two types of crickets, Acheta domesticus (AD) and Gryllus bimaculatus (GB), were used. Results showed that MSBD produced CPP with higher protein and mineral content and lower fat compared to OD (p < 0.05). MSBD also enhanced functional qualities like solubility, foaming capacity, emulsion ability, water retention capacity, and digestibility. CPP treated with MSBD exhibited significantly increased phenolic content and antioxidant activity (p < 0.05). Cricket species also influenced CPP quality. MSBD-produced protein from AD had a lighter color and superior functional qualities, including solubility, foam stability, and protein digestibility. Conversely, GB-produced MSBD protein showed higher protein and calcium levels, as well as better foam capacity. The faster and more even heating of MSBD, along with its shorter drying time, helps preserve heat-sensitive nutrients and bioactive components. This explains the higher quantities of protein, minerals, phenolics, and antioxidants in MSBD samples. Overall, this study shows that MSBD is a promising way to make high-quality protein ingredient from a sustainable insect protein source that have better antioxidant properties and better functionality.

The Potential Application of Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.) Protein in Plant‐Based Food Analogs: A Review

ABSTRACTThe increasing demand for plant‐based food products by consumers along with the growing global population requires the discovery of novel and sustainable protein sources to address environmental challenges and meet nutritional requirements. Among various plant proteins, mung bean protein (MBP) exhibits several unique characteristics that make it a valuable ingredient in the field of plant‐based food analogs. This literature review aims to express the unique structure and composition of MBP, in addition to its physicochemical, functional, and nutritional properties. Furthermore, its potential applications in novel meat, dairy, and egg analogs are highlighted to meet the growing demand for sustainable, nutritious, and delicious plant‐based food alternatives. Structurally, MBP consists of a complex arrangement of amino acids, forming a globular protein with distinct functional properties. Its composition is also rich in essential amino acids, particularly leucine and lysine, making it a promising protein source for plant‐based diets. From a techno‐functional perspective, MBP exhibits remarkable gelling, emulsifying, foaming, and binding properties, which are necessary for the development of stable emulsions, airy foams, firm gels, and cohesive textures in various plant‐based food formulations. Moreover, MBP and its derivatives can possess notable bio‐functional properties, including antioxidant activity and anti‐inflammatory benefits, as well as cholesterol‐lowering, anti‐obesity, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and anticancer effects. Consequently, the production of food analogs based on MBP not only improves the techno‐functional attributes of the final products but also can promote consumer health and well‐being.

Insect Production: A Circular Economy Strategy in Iceland

In this review, the multifaceted issue of food security is addressed, emphasizing the need for innovative and culturally appropriate solutions. Exploring insect livestock farming emerges as a potential remedy, offering a pathway to alleviate food insecurity and promote food sovereignty, particularly when integrated with social acceptability. Stakeholder engagement on both production and consumption fronts, coupled with sustained support, is vital for successful implementation. The expanding landscape of commercial insect farming in the West prompts questions about its broader scalability and equitable deployment, especially for vulnerable populations. Existing research gaps underscore the need for a coordinated effort across international, national, and legal frameworks to effectively integrate insect farming into existing agricultural systems. In this review, we have delved into the industrial-scale production processes of mealworms and black soldier flies (BSFs), known for their high protein content and organic waste conversion, covering small and industrial cultivation methods, offering insights into mealworm production life cycles, innovative rearing systems, and harvesting techniques. This review concludes with climate-specific recommendations for insect facilities, stressing the importance of sustainable practices, continuous research and development, effective market strategies and economic feasibilities in Iceland. In the context of escalating demand for sustainable protein sources, industrial-scale insect production emerges as a pivotal player in addressing global food security challenges.

Impact of Various Extraction Technologies on Protein and Chlorophyll Yield from Stinging Nettle.

Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) has gained attention as a sustainable protein source due to its rich bioactive compound profile and medicinal properties, but research on optimizing its protein extraction remains limited. This research explores various cell disruption methods, including pulsed electric fields and high-pressure homogenization, combined with extraction techniques like isoelectric precipitation, ultrafiltration, and salting-out, to enhance protein yield and assess its impact on chlorophyll content. The findings indicate that high-pressure homogenization combined with isoelectric precipitation achieved the highest protein yield of 11.60%, while pulsed electric fields with ultrafiltration significantly reduced chlorophyll content from 4781.41 µg/g in raw leaves to 15.07 µg/g in the processed sample. Additionally, the findings suggest that innovative extraction technologies can improve the efficiency and sustainability of protein isolation from stinging nettle, offering a valuable addition to the repertoire of alternative protein sources. These advancements could pave the way for broader applications of stinging nettle in food fortification and functional ingredient development.

Optimization and characterization of tomato seed protein isolate: a sustainable source of functional protein

Optimization and characterization of tomato seed protein isolate: a sustainable source of functional protein

BSFL As Alternative Halal Animal Feed

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) as a bioconversion agent in converting organic waste into nutrient-rich biomass makes it a valuable alternative and sustainable protein source for animal feed formulation, addressing the high cost of traditional protein sources. Despite its nutritional benefits, the halal status of animals fed with BSFL is primarily concerned due to the impurity of larvae consumption. This study discusses the halal implications of feeding livestock with BSFL according to the Islamic jurisprudence. Findings suggest that animals predominantly fed with BSFL could be classified as al-Jallalah as feed of these animals are filth, requiring a quarantine process to eliminate any unpleasant effects on the animal’s meat or milk. If these effects are removed, the animals are permissible for consumption. The study concludes that while BSFL consumption is forbidden for mankind, its use as animal feed is permissible under the Islamic law, with necessary precautions are taken to maintain the halal status of the animals.

Presence of Trace Elements in Edible Insects Commercialized through Online E-Commerce Platform.

This study aimed to evaluate the presence of various elements in edible insect-based food products available for human consumption. Several products were analyzed using atomic spectroscopy, and descriptive statistical analysis was conducted with IBM SPSS Statistics 27. The results revealed the presence of elements such as arsenic, cadmium, copper, magnesium, nickel, silver, lead, tungsten, uranium, mercury, platinum, aluminum, beryllium, bismuth, lithium, antimony, and thallium. Significant differences were found based on product type, insect species, and country of origin. The findings underscore the need to assess each insect species for its potential as a food source, taking into account element bioaccumulation factors. A comprehensive, global approach is essential for ensuring the food safety of edible insects as a sustainable protein source. Further research is needed to address these safety concerns.

Nutritional properties of pilot-scale manufactured single-cell proteins from a Corynebacterium glutamicum

ABSTRACT Single-cell proteins (SCPs) derived from microorganisms are sustainable and standard-manufacturable protein sources. Corynebacterium glutamicum is one of the prospective bacteria for SCP production. To evaluate nutritional properties of C. glutamicum-SCP, pilot-scale fermentation (3,000 L) was performed under standard conditions, resulting in 23 kg of SCP in dry weight. This C. glutamicum-SCP had high protein and low-fat contents (22.4% carbohydrates, 60.9% crude protein, and 3.3% crude fat). Its fatty acid profile comprised 0.25% saturated fatty acids, 0.16% unsaturated fatty acids, no trans fatty acids, and no cholesterol. Its total iron content was 9.78 mg/100 g, of which approximately 14.8% was heme iron (1.45 mg/100 g). The Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of C. glutamicum-SCP was 102, higher than that of soy protein isolate (90), pea protein concentrate (82), house cricket (89), or yellow mealworm (64). In conclusion, C. glutamicum-SCP can be a promising alternative protein source to replace red meat.

Replacing soybean meal with house cricket (Acheta domesticus) meal in ruminant diet: effects on ruminal fermentation, degradation, and biohydrogenation

Abstract Insect meals could be a sustainable protein source in ruminant diets to overcome the environmental, market, and feed-food-fuel issues associated with the widespread use of soybean meal (SBM). However, research on this topic is still very scarce. This study was conducted to examine the possibility of replacing SBM with house cricket (Acheta domesticus) meal (HCM) in ruminant feeding. Four cannulated sheep were fed a total mixed ration containing either 10% SBM (Control diet) or 10% of non-defatted HCM (Insect diet) over two consecutive periods. Effects on ruminal fermentation, degradation, and biohydrogenation were evaluated. Despite some differences in rumen dry matter and N degradation kinetics, replacing dietary SBM with HCM did not affect the ruminal disappearance of dry matter, N and, neutral detergent fibre of in situ incubated feedstuffs. Nor were there differences between the meals in the in vitro intestinal digestibility of rumen non-degraded nitrogen. The replacement had no negative effects on rumen pH or ammonia concentrations, but resulted in lower total and individual (i.e. acetate, propionate, butyrate, and minor) volatile fatty acid concentrations. This adverse effect was probably due, at least in part, to the unexpectedly high content of fat in HCM and its relatively high degree of unsaturation. Inclusion of HCM in the diet facilitated modulation of the fatty acid profile of the rumen digesta without negative effects on biohydrogenation pathways (e.g. it increased trans-11 18:1 and cis-9 trans-11 CLA concentrations, with only a small variation in the trans-10:trans-11 18:1 ratio). Replacing SBM with HCM in ruminant diets could be a promising alternative to address the challenges related to SBM and to improve the lipid composition of ruminant-derived products. However, further research is still needed to investigate, for example, the most appropriate level of inclusion of HCM in the diet or the use of defatted meal.

Analysing the effects of feeding black soldier fly on broiler growth performance: a meta-analysis

Context The black soldier fly has been found to be a rich protein source, containing high amounts of protein and lipids, making them a valuable and sustainable alternative to conventional protein sources, such as fish and soybean meals, for broilers, which has also been demonstrated by multiple studies. Aims A meta-analysis was conducted using peer-reviewed published research on the use of black soldier flies in poultry diets to test the hypothesis that it enhances growth performance as a sustainable alternative to plant-based protein sources. Methods To this end, we used publicly available databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Embase) to identify peer-reviewed papers. Retrieved articles were screened for relevance and quality using established criteria. The studies were largely rejected due to non-reporting of variance measures or reporting pooled measures of variance that could not be used. As a result, eight studies were used to extract data for growth performance, including body weight gain. Key results The meta-analysis showed that the effect of feeding black soldier fly meals on body weight gain was non-significant. However, the subgroup analysis showed that utilisation of the frozen form of the black soldier fly lowers body weight gain compared with the birds fed basal diets. Furthermore, the feed intake was significantly (P &lt; 0.05) reduced when the broilers were fed with diets containing black soldier fly meals. The feed conversion ratio showed non-significant (P &gt; 0.05) differences with the supplementation. Conclusions The inclusion level of black soldier fly larvae meal in any form was seen to be safe up to 10%, and the effective duration of the supplementation was ≤35 days. Implications The utilisation of black soldier fly as a sustainable protein source should be encouraged to facilitate farmers in terms of being less dependent on soybean meal, as well as to reduce the competition between humans and animals for plant protein sources.

How Do Greeks Feel about Eating Insects? A Study of Consumer Perceptions and Preferences.

Edible insects are considered among the most promising sustainable sources of protein to address the predicted deficiency of conventional food protein. Due to their nutritional and environmental benefits, there is an increasing interest in the ways insects could become part of the Western diet. Little is known about Greek consumers' attitudes toward the habit of consuming insects as food. This study provides insight into Greek consumers' preferences for insect-based food products. The data were collected through an online questionnaire (n = 1531). A two-step cluster analysis and a categorical regression were employed to classify the respondents into discernible clusters and determine the relationship between their socioeconomic characteristics and their willingness to adopt insect-based food products. Feelings of disgust and rejection were the predominant reactions to the concept of insects as food. The acceptance of novel foods derived from edible insects could be potentially enhanced by providing information regarding their positive effects, using familiar food products, and decreasing the insect's degree of visibility by employing processed forms. Finally, the categories of insect protein-enriched food products (bakery, meat, snacks) that Greek consumers are more likely to consume were revealed. Such findings may be useful for promoting strategies regarding consuming insect-based products.

The Nutritional Quality of Commercially Bred Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) Compared to European Union Nutrition Claims.

Due to its potential as a sustainable protein source, the industrial relevance of Tenebrio molitor, known as yellow mealworm, is set to increase substantially. Given the novelty of its application in the food industry, knowledge is lacking regarding the nutritional quality of commercially farmed mealworms. This study investigated the nutritional composition of larvae from four different rearing facilities in Belgium and specifically investigated whether their nutritional profiles adhered to defined European nutrition claims (Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006). In particular, the European nutrition claims "high in protein", "high unsaturated fat", "high in fibre" and "rich in P, Mg, K, Zn and Mn" were applicable for all mealworm samples on a dry matter basis. On a fresh matter basis, yellow mealworms were found to be "high in protein", "high unsaturated fat" and "low in sugar".