Sustainable Production Research Articles

Techno-economic and sustainability assessment of the power to MeOH processes: The present and future perspective

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of a Power-to-Methanol (PtM) process, which converts CO2 and H2 derived from electrolysis of water into methanol (MeOH) using renewable energy sources. The process is analyzed for its technical, economic, and environmental aspects, focusing on production costs and the minimum selling price of MeOH. The simulation results show an energy efficiency of 56 % in the optimal state, with a CO2 consumption of 1.4 kg-CO2/kg-MeOH. Economic evaluations for 2023 indicate production costs of US$ 631 and 643 for PtM processes equipped with membrane and amine absorption technologies, respectively. The study also predicts the cost of production and minimum selling price of MeOH from 2023 to 2030 based on the trends of electrolyzer capital investment and renewable resource prices. The results provide valuable insights for the development and evaluation of sustainable MeOH production processes.

Machine Learning-Based Crop Suitability Prediction: An Emerging Technique for Sustainable Agricultural Production in the Desert Region of India

ABSTRACT Machine learning (ML) algorithms can be applied to predict the suitability of soil for crop cultivation based on digital soil mapping. We used three distinct models viz. Multinomial Logistic Regression (MnLR), Random Forest (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) to predict the suitability of wheat and pearl millet in the Barmer district of the Thar Desert. After the computation of crop suitability classes, ML techniques were used to develop suitability maps of wheat and pearl millet in the study area. The study found that the RF and XGBoost models worked well to classify crop suitability. The RF model showed that 11.9% of the total area was highly suitable, 1.6% was moderately suitable, 14.9% was marginally suitable, and 71.6% was not suitable for wheat crop. RF model for pearl millet showed that 15.5% of the area is highly suitable. Soil suitability mapping for wheat showed a Kappa index ranging from 0.23 to 0.57 and an overall accuracy ranging from 0.79 to 0.86, whereas the prediction of suitability for pearl millet showed a moderate range of Kappa index from 0.31 to 0.58 and accuracy from 0.63 to 0.77. The area under curve (AUC) for wheat crop was 0.72, 0.88, and 0.91 for MnLR, RF, and XGBoost models, respectively. Overall, the RF model performed better than the MnLR model, showing a 16% increase in accuracy. Therefore, the developed suitability maps using ML provide valuable details on agricultural potential in the Indian desert region while harmonizing its impact on the environment and the economy.

Performance Evaluation and Economic Sustainability of the PAU Model Batch Type Paddy Straw Biogas Plant

This study evaluates the performance and economic viability of the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) Model Batch Type Paddy Straw Biogas Plant in rural India, addressing critical challenges in agricultural residue management and sustainable energy production. Data collected from two plants over four months showed an average daily biogas production of 1.46 to 3.13 m3 per day, with a total gas production of 284.8 m3 in a period of four months. Plant performance correlated moderately with ambient temperature. Economic analysis revealed annual savings of Rs. 47,600 through reduced LPG use and biogas slurry sales. The study concludes that the PAU Model is technically efficient and economically viable, offering a sustainable solution for paddy straw management and rural energy security. These findings have significant implications for policymakers and rural development practitioners in promoting sustainable agriculture and renewable energy adoption in developing regions.

Organic cropping systems balance environmental impacts and agricultural production

Agriculture provides food to a still growing population but is a major driver of the acceleration of global nutrient flows, climate change, and biodiversity loss. Policies such as the European Farm2Fork strategy aim to mitigate the environmental impact of land-use by fostering organic farming. To assess long-term environmental impact of organic food production we synthesized more than four decades of research on agronomic and environmental performance of the oldest system comparison experiment on organic and conventional cropping systems (DOK experiment). Two organic systems (bioorganic and biodynamic) are compared with two conventional (manure-based integrated and mineral-based) systems all with the same arable crop rotation including grass-clover, and manure from livestock integrated in all except the mineral-based system. Organic systems used 92% less pesticides and 76% less mineral nitrogen than conventional systems. Nitrogen use efficiency, that also considers biological nitrogen fixation, was above 85% for all systems. Organic fertilization with farmyard manure maintained or increased soil carbon and nitrogen stocks in the long term, especially in the biodynamic system with manure compost. Conventional mineral-based cropping reduced soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks. Higher soil organic carbon stocks in organic cropping did not translate to increased N2O emissions, which were the main driver for 56% lower soil-based, area-scaled climate impact compared to the integrated conventional system with manure. Organic cropping systems, especially compost-based biodynamic, showed enhanced soil health, richness of micro- and macrofauna and weed species. Highest yields were achieved in integrated conventional system, with highest total nitrogen inputs and enhanced soil health compared to pure mineral fertilization. Yet, these benefits come at the cost of lower nitrogen use efficiency and higher N2O emissions. Despite a rigorous reduction of inputs yields of the organic systems achieved 85% of the conventional systems. We demonstrate at field level that organic cropping systems with reduced external nutrient inputs have less climate impact and a larger in-situ biodiversity, while providing a fertile ground for the future development of sustainable agricultural production systems.

Investigating the Effect of Nano-Crystalline Cellulose in Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Matrix for Improved Thermo-Mechanical Properties

The escalating demand for sustainable rubber products has spurred research into alternative reinforcing fillers, driven by concerns regarding the detrimental effects of using conventional fillers like carbon black and silica. In this investigation, nano-crystalline cellulose (NCC), derived from micro crystalline cellulose (MCC), sourced from sugarcane bagasse via acid hydrolysis, serves as a bio-filler to reinforce Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (NBR) matrices. NBR-NCC nano-composites were prepared using a two-roll mill, varying NCC from 1–5 parts per hundred rubber matrices, followed by hot press curing. NCC and NBR-NCC nano-composites were characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), curing characteristics, thermo-mechanical testing, thermal aging and motor oil resistance. Chemical interactions between the NCC and NBR matrix were verified with FTIR. The SEM images of the NCC showed a combination of rod-like and spherical morphologies and a homogenous dispersion of NCC in NBR-NCC nano-composites with some agglomeration, notably at higher percentages of NCC. It is shown that the cure time decreases with increasing NCC loading which mimics a shorter industrial production cycle. The results also showed an increase in tensile strength, hardness, oil resistance and a rise in degradation temperature when compared to NBR at approximately 34%, 36%, 38% and 32 °C, respectively, at 3 phr NCC loading. Furthermore, NBR-NCC nano-composites showed a lower decrease in mechanical properties after aging when compared to NBR. The findings of this research suggest that the NBR-NCC nano-composites may find applications in high oil resistance seals and rubber gloves where higher thermal stability is strictly required.

Leguminous Green Manure Intercropping Promotes Soil Health in a Citrus (Citrus reticulata) Orchard

The intercropping of green manure is an important and sustainable production method in citrus orchards (Citrus reticulata). However, few studies focus on the impact of annual and perennial green manure on soil health, particularly soil microbiome and properties in acid soil. Our research objective was to explore the potential effects on soil health by intercropping with annual and perennial leguminous green manures in acid soil citrus orchards of southwestern China. The leguminous green manures used were alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). The results showed that intercropping with green manure increased the total nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and available phosphorous in the soil by 48.67~74.67%, 50.00~96.67%, and 44.48~45.04%, respectively. Intercropping with alfalfa significantly increased the activity of soil sucrase 63.75%, and intercropping with hairy vetch increased the activity of β-1,4-glucosidase 44.38% in the soil compared to the monoculture treatment. Intercropping hairy vetch and alfalfa altered the diversity and composition of the soil microbial community and enriched the soil with beneficial fungi and bacteria, including Mortierella and Streptomyces. The richness increased by 58.72% and 17.90% in alfalfa intercropping treatment. In conclusion, intercropping leguminous green manure improved the nutrients and activity of the enzymes in the soil and enriched the antagonistic microbiome in the soil, promoting soil health in the citrus orchard.

Assessing the Environmental Impact of Oasis Agriculture in the Yarkant River Basin: A Comprehensive Study of Water Use, Carbon Footprint, and Decoupling Index

Studying the relationship between grain planting and the environment is an important means to promote sustainable production. This study takes wheat, a typical grain crop in the Yarkant River oasis irrigation district, the fourth largest agricultural irrigation district in China, as an example to analyze the relationship and changing trends between wheat yield and water footprint (WF), and carbon footprint (CF) from 2001 to 2020. The study found that during the research period, wheat yield, WFgreen,blue,WFgrey, and CF showed a fluctuating but significantly upward trend. Decoupling analysis indicates that the overall decoupling trend between wheat yield and water footprint and carbon footprint is not obvious. This suggests that the rapid development of wheat production in the Yarkant River Oasis has also led to significant water resource consumption, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Among the three sub–irrigation districts, the Shache sub–irrigation district has the best decoupling state, reflecting that the increase in wheat yield in Shache did not lead to more water resource consumption and pollution which is may due to its abundant water resources and agriculture development. Further analysis found that the use of nitrogen fertilizers and irrigation electricity have contributed to water resource pressure and greenhouse gas emissions. This study reveals that there are significant environmental risks in the current wheat planting in the Yarkant River oasis irrigation district, but it also points out the direction for green development in the irrigation district.

Enhancing Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge Oil Using Bio-Based Heterogeneous Catalyst

The swift exhaustion of natural oil reserves and worsening environmental issues have prompted the quest for an economical method to produce biofuels. The superiority of heterogeneous catalysis promotes the development of bio-based catalysts. Carbon materials prepared from agricultural and forestry biomass waste have good application prospects in catalysis. In the present study, Xanthoceras sorbifolia shell waste was used as the raw material, Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge Carbon (XC) was used as the catalyst carrier, and K2CO3 was used as the activator to prepare a heterogeneous catalyst (KXC). The heterogeneous catalyst was characterized by scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersion X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis techniques to evaluate its chemical composition, structure, and physical morphology. EDS and XPS revealed the presence of K metal, which provided an alkaline site for the transesterification reaction to produce biodiesel. The biodiesel yield was observed by gas chromatography−mass spectrometry (GCMS). Under the reaction conditions of a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 12:1, a reaction time of 90 min, a temperature of 65 °C, and a catalyst loading of 4 wt.% using 25KXC-600-4, the yield of biodiesel can reach 95.13 ± 0.82%. After being repeated five times, the yield was still 58.11 ± 3.80%. The catalyst has no waste generation, and has the characteristics of simple preparation and environmental friendliness, which make it a green heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production.

Individual happiness and well-being as a strategy to increase productivity

This research aims to examine the role of happiness and well-being as key factors in enhancing individual productivity. With the growing body of research on mental health and well-being, a new understanding has emerged regarding the strong connection between emotional well-being and productive performance. Through a literature review, this study identifies and analyzes various empirical studies that explore the impact of happiness and well-being on productivity in different contexts, both in the workplace and in everyday life. The review process employed a systematic literature review method, with inclusion criteria encompassing studies published within the last four years and written in English or Indonesian. The findings indicate that happiness and well-being not only contribute to improved performance but also play a pivotal role in fostering an environment that supports sustainable productivity growth.

Consumers’ perception and willingness to pay for hydroponic tomatoes: the effects of sustainability and quality attributes

PurposeThe agricultural sector is facing pressure due to concerns about its impact on the environment. Farmers must adapt to ensure high-quality, sustainable production. This requires efficient techniques such as soilless farming. The development of agricultural innovations depends on social acceptance; thus, it is crucial to identify the factors that influence consumers' purchasing decisions. The aim of this paper is to analyse consumers' perceptions of hydroponic cultivation techniques and their willingness to pay (WTP) a premium price for hydroponic tomatoes certified as “nickel-free” and “zero-residue”.Design/methodology/approachThe survey was conducted in Italy using tomatoes as a case study. Data were collected through an online questionnaire from a convenience sample of 292 respondents and were analysed using statistical analysis and a multiple linear regression model.FindingsThe results showed that WTP was influenced by frequency of purchase, familiarity with soilless technology, environmental sustainability, income and education. Consumers place a high value on the sustainability of the hydroponic production process and their perception of increased safety positively influences WTP. It is therefore recommended that marketing strategies focus on the environmental sustainability and safety of hydroponic products. In addition, it may be beneficial to implement a certification system specific to hydroponic cultivation, in addition to the existing “nickel-free” and “zero-residue” certifications.Originality/valueThis study introduces several novel elements: it is the first to assess the Italian consumers’ perceptions and WTP for a hydroponic product. Secondly, it assesses WTP in relation to several aspects of increasing relevance related to health claims, namely “nickel-free” and “zero-residue”.

Dynamics analysis of green supply chain under the conditions of demand uncertainty and blockchain technology

This research investigates the implications of incorporating blockchain technology into the process of making decisions for green supply chains, particularly under conditions of demand uncertainty. A model was formulated to encompass both environmentally friendly products enabled by blockchain technology and those without such enabling technology. The study further explores the optimal method of introducing green input in a duopoly market using game theory. It also examines how consumer uncertainty about green products and acceptance of the technical parameters of blockchain influence this strategy. The findings suggest that increased consumer uncertainty can, in some instances, motivate manufacturers to enhance the eco-friendliness of their products and improve supply chain performance. However, the universal adoption of blockchain does not necessarily ensure better results; on the contrary, it may compromise product sustainability while enhancing supply chain profitability. Moreover, research has indicated that products enabled by blockchain typically have lower prices, thereby offering potential benefits to consumers when acceptance of sustainable energy solutions is high or uncertain. Additionally, this paper analyzes the impact of changes in green supply chain decision-making on system reliability. This involves exploring the relationship between decision parameters and consumer reluctance towards sustainable products and the adoption of blockchain technology. To ensure stable market competition in dynamic complex systems, research shows that feedback control technology can effectively regulate unpredictable behavior.

Isolation and Identification of Multi-Traits PGPR for Sustainable Crop Productivity Under Salinity Stress

High salinity poses a significant threat to arable land globally and contributes to desertification. Growth-promoting rhizobacteria assist plants in mitigating abiotic stresses and enhancing crop productivity through the production of siderophores, exopolysaccharides (EPS), solubilisation of phosphate, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and other secondary metabolites. This study aimed to isolate, identify, and characterise bacteria that exhibit robust growth-promoting properties. A total of 64 bacterial isolates from the rhizosphere of Miscanthus sinensis were evaluated for plant growth-promoting (PGP) traits, including IAA, EPS, siderophores, and solubilisation of phosphate. Among them, five isolates were selected as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) based on their PGP features and identified via 16S rRNA sequencing: Enterococcus mundtii strain INJ1 (OR122486), Lysinibacillus fusiformis strain INJ2 (OR122488), Lysinibacillus sphaericus strain MIIA20 (OR122490), Pseudomonas qingdaonensis strain BD1 (OR122487), and Pseudomonas qingdaonensis strain MIA20 (OR122489), all documented in NCBI GenBank. BD1 demonstrated a higher production of superoxide dismutase (SOD) (17.93 U/mg mL), catalase (CAT) (91.17 U/mg mL), and glutathione (GSH) (0.18 U/mg mL), along with higher concentrations of IAA (31.69 µg/mL) and salicylic acid (SA) (14.08 ng/mL). These isolates also produced significant quantities of amino and organic acids. BD1 exhibited superior PGP traits compared to other isolates. Furthermore, the NaCl tolerance of these bacterial isolates was assessed by measuring their growth at concentrations ranging from 0 to 200 mM at 8-h intervals. Optical density (OD) measurements indicated that BD1 and INJ2 displayed significant tolerance to salt stress. The utilisation of these isolates, which enhances plant growth and PGP traits under salt stress, may improve plant development under saline conditions.

The need for high-resolution gut microbiome characterization to design efficient strategies for sustainable aquaculture production

Microbiome-directed dietary interventions such as microbiota-directed fibers (MDFs) have a proven track record in eliciting responses in beneficial gut microbes and are increasingly being promoted as an effective strategy to improve animal production systems. Here we used initial metataxonomic data on fish gut microbiomes as well as a wealth of a priori mammalian microbiome knowledge on α-mannooligosaccharides (MOS) and β-mannan-derived MDFs to study effects of such feed supplements in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and their impact on its gut microbiome composition and functionalities. Our multi-omic analysis revealed that the investigated MDFs (two α-mannans and an acetylated β-galactoglucomannan), at a dose of 0.2% in the diet, had negligible effects on both host gene expression, and gut microbiome structure and function under the studied conditions. While a subsequent trial using a higher (4%) dietary inclusion of β-mannan significantly shifted the gut microbiome composition, there were still no biologically relevant effects on salmon metabolism and physiology. Only a single Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia (BCP) population demonstrated consistent and significant abundance shifts across both feeding trials, although with no evidence of β-mannan utilization capabilities or changes in gene transcripts for producing metabolites beneficial to the host. In light of these findings, we revisited our omics data to predict and outline previously unreported and potentially beneficial endogenous lactic acid bacteria that should be targeted with future, conceivably more suitable, MDF strategies for salmon.

Physiological Behavior of Rubber Plants (<i>Hevea Brasilliensis</i>) to Different Soil Moisture Conditions

Drought conditions can severely impact rubber (<i>Hevea brasiliensis</i>) plantations, leading to economic loss in Malaysia. The study aimed to assess the impact of varying soil moisture levels on the physiological characteristics of five latex timber clones (LTCs) of rubber, with the goal of identifying the most suitable clone for specific soil moisture conditions. These conditions include (1) field capacity, (2) 75% available water (AW), (3) 50% AW, (4) 25% AW, and (5) wilting point, with the ultimate objective of optimizing cultivation methods and fostering sustainable rubber production in Malaysia. The five clones under investigation include RRIM3001, RRIM2025, RRIM2001, RRIM928, and PB350. Leaf chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, and net photosynthesis were measured 4 and 8 months after treatment (MAT). The findings indicated significant effects of moisture stress on various physiological attributes, including total chlorophyll content, relative chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, and net photosynthesis rate. At 4 and 8 MATs, the clones subjected to field capacity exhibited the highest values for these physiological characteristics, followed by those exposed to 75% available water, with the lowest values observed at the wilting point. RRIM3001 consistently exhibited the highest total chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, and net photosynthesis among the clones at both sampling dates. The highest net photosynthesis was observed in the RRIM3001 clone under field capacity conditions. Furthermore, a significant positive correlation was identified between total chlorophyll and relative chlorophyll contents, as well as between net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. These findings carry practical implications for water management during the initial growth phase of rubber seedlings and for replanting initiatives in rubber plantations.

Integration of plant and microbial oil processing at oilcane biorefineries for more sustainable biofuel production

AbstractOilcane—an oil‐accumulating crop engineered from sugarcane—and microbial oil have the potential to improve renewable oil production and help meet the expected demand for bioderived oleochemicals and fuels. To assess the potential synergies of processing both plant and microbial oils, the economic and environmental implications of integrating microbial oil production at oilcane and sugarcane biorefineries were characterized. Due to decreased crop yields that lead to higher simulated feedstock prices and lower biorefinery capacities, current oilcane prototypes result in higher costs and carbon intensities than microbial oil from sugarcane. To inform oilcane feedstock development, we calculated the required biomass yields (as a function of oil content) for oilcane to achieve financial parity with sugarcane. At 10 dw% oil, oilcane can sustain up to 30% less yield than sugarcane and still be more profitable in all simulated scenarios. Assuming continued improvements in microbial oil production from cane juice, achieving this target results in a minimum biodiesel selling price of 1.34 [0.90, 1.85] USD∙L−1 (presented as median [5th, 95th] percentiles), a carbon intensity of 0.51 [0.47, 0.55] kg CO2e L−1, and a total biodiesel yield of 2140 [1870, 2410] L ha−1 year−1. Compared to biofuel production from soybean, this outcome is equivalent to 3.0–3.9 as much biofuel per hectare of land and a 57%–63% reduction in carbon intensity. While only 20% of simulated scenarios fell within the market price range of biodiesel (0.45–1.11 USD∙L−1), if the oilcane biomass yield would improve to 25.6 DMT∙ha−1∙y−1 (an equivalent yield to sugarcane) 87% of evaluated scenarios would have a minimum biodiesel selling price within or below the market price range.

2023: a soil odyssey–HeAted soiL-Monoliths (HAL-Ms) to examine the effect of heat emission from HVDC underground cables on plant growth

BackgroundThe use of renewable energy for sustainable and climate-neutral electricity production is increasing worldwide. High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission via underground cables helps connect large production sides with consumer regions. In Germany, almost 5,000 km of new power line projects is planned, with an initial start date of 2038 or earlier. During transmission, heat is emitted to the surrounding soil, but the effects of the emitted heat on root growth and yield of the overlying crop plants remain uncertain and must be investigated.ResultsFor this purpose, we designed and constructed a low-cost large HeAted soiL-Monolith (HAL-M) model for simulating heat flow within soil with a natural composition and density. We could observe root growth, soil temperature and soil water content over an extended period. We performed a field trial-type experiment involving three-part crop rotation in a greenhouse. We showed that under the simulated conditions, heat emission could reduce the yield and root growth depending on the crop type and soil.ConclusionsThis experimental design could serve as a low-cost, fast and reliable standard for investigating thermal issues related to various soil compositions and types, precipitation regimes and crop plants affected by similar projects. Beyond our research question, the HAL-M technique could serve as a link between pot and field trials with the advantages of both approaches. This method could enrich many research areas with the aim of controlling natural soil and plant conditions.

Intention to purchase sustainable food: the role of epistemic trust, credibility of science and scepticism about climate change

PurposeThis study investigated the role of epistemic trust in shaping consumers intentions towards purchasing sustainable food products by examining the relationships between epistemic trust, credibility of science, scepticism about climate change and intentions to purchase sustainable food.Design/methodology/approachData were collected using a survey. A total of 391 consumers participated in the study. Structural equation modelling was employed for data analysis.FindingsThe results showed that the trust dimension was significantly and positively associated with credibility of science (p = 0.004) and negatively with scepticism about climate change (p = 0.018); mistrust was significantly and negatively associated with credibility of science (p = ≤0.001); credibility of science had a significant negative effect on scepticism about climate change (p = ≤0.001) and scepticism about climate change had a significant direct and negative impact on intention to purchase sustainable food (p = ≤0.001). Furthermore, results indicated that the link between trust, mistrust and intention to purchase sustainable food was significantly mediated by the credibility of science and scepticism about climate change.Practical implicationsThe results can preliminarily suggest policies promoting transparency and direct consumer experiences in organisational practices, with implications extending to other sectors like education and public information.Originality/valueFor the first time, epistemic trust is specifically considered as an antecedent of intentions to purchase sustainable food, while also examining its relationships with scepticism about climate change and the credibility of science.

Assessment of Early Growth of Aquilaria malaccensis in Behraich: Insights for Sustainable Agarwood Production and Conservation

Assessment of Early Growth of Aquilaria malaccensis in Behraich: Insights for Sustainable Agarwood Production and Conservation

Development of a novel process towards an l-malate biorefinery using methanol as feedstock

Malate is primarily obtained from fossil resources. However, growing environmental concerns are rerouting chemical manufacturing to biomanufacturing. Despite significant ‘discovery research’ efforts for sustainable malate production, a successful industrial implementation remains elusive. A novel methanol-based l-malate biomanufacturing process using the methylotrophic bacterium Bacillus methanolicus is designed and the relationship between R&D and techno-economic feasibility is assessed. Two scenarios are modeled and compared using SuperPro Designer®. First, with limited R&D success a 65 g/L titer is achievable. Then with further strain improvement and process development titer is increased to 100 g/L. Four independent design parameters; biomass formation, CO2 evolution, methanol loss and selling price are selected to analyze techno-economic metrics of interest (yield per batch, yield on methanol, unit production cost, and net present value). Sensitivity analysis reveals the dependence of techno-economic feasibility to R&D success, while uncertainty analysis quantifies how uncertainty in process development propagates into uncertainty in process performance.

Microbial electrochemical snorkels: principle, structure, and applications in environmental amelioration

Microbial electrochemical technology (MET) represents a novel approach demonstrating promising application prospects in emerging strategic industries such as environment protection, energy saving, and sustainable energy production. Among different METs, microbial electrochemical snorkels (MES) are praised for the simple design, high flexibility, and low costs. Several pilot MESs have been employed to mitigate environmental issues in European and American countries. Despite the rapid development, only one review article on MES has been published so far. Here we review the latest achievements in this field and introduce the principles, structures, functions, and applications of MESs. Moreover, we summarize the key challenges and the future research areas in this field, aiming to give insights into the research on MESs and other METs and improve the applications of such technologies.