Migration Survey Research Articles

Determinants and consequences of rural‐to‐urban migration patterns in China: Evidence from sequence analysis

AbstractThis paper adopts a life course perspective that captures the migration trajectory for rural‐to‐urban migrants in China during the observation window. By taking this trajectory approach, we aim to advance the understanding of divergent rural‐to‐urban migration patterns in China and their determinants and consequences. We use data from the Survey of Internal Migration and Health in China (IMHC) and focus on individuals' migration experience between age 14 and 40. First, we apply sequence analysis to characterise the main rural‐to‐urban migration patterns by different timing, duration, frequency, and direction and identify seven common patterns. We next examine the determinants of these patterns. The results suggest that demographic characteristics, socio‐economic background, and hometown characteristics shape migration trajectories in complex ways, highlighting that social origin can substantially determine migration patterns of rural Chinese. Furthermore, we examine via a counterfactual framework how the seven migration patterns shape migrants' occupational attainment while taking account of self‐selection into different migration trajectories. The findings show that (i) there is self‐selection into migration trajectories that has implications for occupational status and (ii) non‐transient adult urban migration is associated with higher occupational attainment whereas other types of migration are not.

CAN RETURN MIGRATION REVITALISE LATVIA’S REGIONS? FACILITATORS AND BARRIERS TO HUMAN CAPITAL GAINS

Migration researchers from East-Central Europe most often focus on the impact of ‘brain drain’ which is characterised by the loss of human capital from emigration. In this paper focus is placed on the assumption that migrants living abroad gain valuable experiences and education opportunities, that lead to personal growth, facilitate entrepreneurship and psychological resilience, amongst other important skills. This experience may be used for the revitalisation of the less-developed regions the migrants return to. To explore what facilitates or inhibits the fulfil potential of ‘brain circulation’ or gain, we use data from two large-scale surveys of return migrants in Latvia, in-depth interviews, media analysis, regional workshops and secondary data. We find that return migrants often choose to return to the capital city and not their original point of departure. While towns and villages offer some advantages such as little competition, easier adaptation and high neighbourhood quality, reliance on personal contacts distorts the efficiency of job placement and there are fewer work opportunities in one’s acquired profession. The skills are waisted and employers remain unappreciative of knowledge gained abroad in towns and villages more than in Riga.

Educational and migration aspirations among children of Mexican migrant returnees in a border context

Abstract There has been a significant increase in migrant children from the USA living in Mexico in the last two decades. This article analyses the association between transnational schooling and the education and migration aspirations (the country one wishes to live or work in) of lower secondary students in Tijuana, a border city with very high return migration. This article also addresses how education and migration aspirations are connected and the extent to which these aspirations are mediated by US-specific capital (US citizenship, having family members in the USA, English proficiency, and cultural identification with the USA). The analyses draw from the 2017 School Integration and Migration Survey, conducted among students in 86 lower secondary schools, and 38 follow-up semi-structured interviews with transnational students. The results indicate that students with US school experience were more likely to aspire to study a two-year college or technical degree than nontransnational students. Transnational schooling was also directly associated with aspiring to migrate or engage in cross-border employment. Interviews elucidate the ways tertiary education plans were subordinate to intentions to work in the USA as funding their education became part of transnational students’ life projects. US schools were essential conduits through which education values, English skills, and national identities became ingrained in Mexican migrant children. Students’ migratory aspirations were nurtured by their experience in US schools and transnational social networks, in addition to their US citizenship. The public policy implications of these findings are also discussed.

Prevalence and Potential Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Resistance in Qatar: Results from a Nationally Representative Survey of Qatari Nationals and Migrants between December 2020 and January 2021.

Global COVID-19 pandemic containment necessitates understanding the risk of hesitance or resistance to vaccine uptake in different populations. The Middle East and North Africa currently lack vital representative vaccine hesitancy data. We conducted the first representative national phone survey among the adult population of Qatar, between December 2020 and January 2021, to estimate the prevalence and identify potential determinants of vaccine willingness: acceptance (strongly agree), resistance (strongly disagree), and hesitance (somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree). Bivariate and multinomial logistic regression models estimated associations between willingness groups and fifteen variables. In the total sample, 42.7% (95% CI: 39.5–46.1) were accepting, 45.2% (95% CI: 41.9–48.4) hesitant, and 12.1% (95% CI: 10.1–14.4) resistant. Vaccine resistant compared with hesistant and accepting groups reported no endorsement source will increase vaccine confidence (58.9% vs. 5.6% vs. 0.2%, respectively). Female gender, Arab ethnicity, migrant status/type, and vaccine side-effects concerns were associated with hesitancy and resistance. COVID-19 related bereavement, infection, and quarantine status were not significantly associated with any willingness group. Absence of or lack of concern about contracting the virus was solely associated with resistance. COVID-19 vaccine resistance, hesitance, and side-effects concerns are high in Qatar’s population compared with those globally. Urgent public health engagement should focus on women, Qataris (non-migrants), and those of Arab ethnicity.

Migrant Remitting as Transnational Practice: Moldovans in Italy and Czechia

We examine the relationship between the social practice of migrant remitting and the transnational field connecting Moldova with Italy and Czechia. Using data from a harmonized migrant survey, we estimate ordinal regression models and distinguish two remitting practices. Family remitting is organized around a set of routinized activities and communications that support the survival needs of families, while civil remitting contributes to the long-term development of civil society. These practices are associated with ongoing engagements with the transnational field and differentiated by duration overseas and legal status. Our findings confirm the importance of studying the transnational context of remitting and suggest that migration-development policy should recognize remittances as long-term social practices rather than transactions.

عوامل اختیار دولة المقصد بین المهاجرین للعمل من مصر خلال الفترة 2000-2013

تعد مصر أکبر الدول العربية المصدرة للعمالة في الشرق الأوسط، وتجتذب الدول العربية نحو 95% من تلک العمالة، ويترکز المصريون المهاجرون في عدد محدود من تلک الدول؛ وهم على الترتيب: السعودية، ليبيا، الکويت والأردن. لذلک فقد اهتمت الدراسة برصد التباينات بين المهاجرين المصريين حسب دولة المقصد والتعرف على محددات اختيار تلک الدول خلال الفترة من 2000 – 2013، وذلک بالاعتماد على بيانات “المسح القومى للهجرة الدولية-مصر 2013” الذي قام به الجهاز المرکزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء في مصر. وقد أشارت النتائج إلى وجود نمطان يميزان المهاجرين حسب دولة المقصد، حيث کان المهاجرون إلى ليبيا والأردن هم الأکثر شبابا والأقل تعليما ويمتهنون الأعمال الزراعية بشکل أساسي، بينما کان المهاجرون إلى السعودية والکويت هم الأکبر سنا والمتميزون من الحرفيين المصريين، کما کان المهاجرون إلى السعودية والکويت هم الأکثر استقرارا مقارنة بباقي الدول. وقد أظهرت نتائج نموذج الانحدار اللوجستي الاسمي متعدد الأوجه أن متغير المهنة وقت الهجرة هو المتغير الحاسم لاختيار دولة المقصد، وکذلک متغير الحالة التعليمية باستثناء حالة دولة الکويت، کما أظهرت النتائج تراجع دور شبکات الهجرة في اتخاذ قرار الهجرة، إلى جانب أن الدول النفطية هي الدول الأکثر استقرارا للمهاجرين من مصر. Abstract: Egypt is the largest labor exporting Arab country in the Middle East and about 95% of those labor migrants are attracted to Arab countries. Egyptians migrants are concentrated in a specific number of these countries, namely Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kuwait and Jordan, respectively. Therefore, the study focused on monitoring the differences between Egyptian emigrants according to the receiving country and identifying the determinants of selecting such destinations during the period 2000-2013, based on the data obtained from the “International Migration Survey - Egypt 2013” ​​which was carried out by the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics- Egypt. The results indicated that there are two patterns that distinguish migrants according to the receiving country, as the migrants to Libya and Jordan were the most youthful and the least educated and mainly engaged in agricultural work, while the migrants to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are older and working in craftsmen activities. The migrants to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait were also more stable compared to other countries. The results of the multiple nominal logistic regression model showed that the profession at the time of emigration was the critical variable for the choice of the destination country, as well as the variable of educational status, except for Kuwait. The results also showed a fall back in the role of migration networks in the decision to migrate, in addition to the fact that the oil countries are the most stable countries for emigrants.

Demographic and behavioural drivers of intra-urban mobility of migrant street children and youth in Kampala, Uganda.

While research on the nexus of migration and wellbeing of individuals has gained recognition in recent years, far less attention has been devoted to intra-urban mobility especially among the urban poor young populations. We assess the drivers of intra-urban mobility using a random sample of 412 migrant street children and youth in Kampala city, Uganda. This paper draws from a larger cross-sectional survey of circular migration and sexual and reproductive health choices among street children in Kampala, Uganda. We define 'migrants' as street children and youth with a rural-urban migration experience and 'intra-urban mobility' as the number of places stayed in or moved since migrating to the city, measured on a continuous scale. More than half (54.37%) of the migrant street children and youth had lived in two or more places since migrating to the city. Multivariate negative binomial regression analysis reveals migrant street children and youth's intra-urban mobility to be associated with gender (aIRR = 0.71, 95%CI 0.53-0.96), sex work (aIRR = 1.38, 95%CI 1.01-1.88), a daily income of one USD or more (aIRR = 1.57, 95%CI 1.16-2.13) and duration of stay in the city (aIRR = 1.54, 95%CI 1.17-2.01). Other drivers of intra-urban mobility included availability of causal work, personal safety and affordability of rental costs. Our findings suggest the need for urban housing and health policies to take into account street children and youth's intra-urban mobility and its drivers. Future research on all drivers of street children and youth's intra-urban mobility and its linkage with their health outcomes is recommended.

Consequences of Labour Migration on Wages and Employment: Evidence from India

This paper evaluates the impact of migration on the labour market outcomes of non-migrant workers in India using unit-level data from the ‘Employment Unemployment and Migration Survey’ (NSSO 64th Round, 2007–2008). After correcting for endogeneity bias of migration using an instrument variable approach, the overall results of the study suggest that the inflow of migrant workers increases the wages of non-migrant workers but does not affect their employment. Disaggregating the analysis by sectors, the study finds a positive wage effect in the formal sector, which is more pronounced among the high-skilled workers. In the informal sector, the results indicate an adverse employment effect among both high- and low-skilled workers. The positive wage effect in the formal sector suggests complementarity between migrant and non-migrant workers. The adverse employment effect in the informal sector is possibly due to a preference for migrant workers over non-migrant workers. The estimated results are consistent with alternate specifications.

Espacios de estancia prolongada para la población migrante centroamericana en tránsito por México

The objective of this article is to identify the main areas where Central American migrants spend most of their time during their transit through Mexico. The theoretical framework reviews the mobility-immobility and aspiration/ability approaches that focus on mobility restrictions and waiting times. The definition of waiting territories and the inclusion of the length of stay variable contribute to the study of transit migration from the perspective of immobility. Using the Migration Survey in the Northern Border (Emif Sur), the magnitude of displacements through the reported areas by migrants is estimated as having the longest length of stay in their migratory displacement. Long-term transit spaces correspond to different border regions and locations close to migratory routes. The provided empirical evidence indirectly suggests obstacles to mobility manifested in long- term transit spaces.

Prevalence and Potential Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Resistance in Qatar: Results from a Nationally Representative Survey of Qatari Nationals and Migrants between December 2020 and January 2021

Background: Effective public health measures in tackling the global COVID-19 pandemic necessitate understanding risk of hesitance or resistance to vaccine uptake in different populations. The Middle East and North Africa currently lacks vital representative vaccine hesitancy data.Methods: We conducted the first representative national phone survey using probability sampling among the adult population of Qatar, between December 2020 and January 2021, to identify the prevalence and potential determinants of vaccine willingness. This was categorized into: vaccine acceptance (strongly agree), vaccine resistance (strongly disagree) and vaccine hesitance (somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree). Bivariate and multinomial logistic regression models estimated associations between vaccine willingness and fifteen sociodemographic, work-, and health-related variables.Findings: In the total sample, 42.7% (95%CI: 39.5-46.1) were classified as accepting, 45.2% (95%CI: 41.9-48.4) hesitant, and 12.1% (95%CI: 10.1-14.4) resistant. Those in the vaccine resistance group reported no source of endorsement will increase their confidence in accepting the vaccine (58.9% vs. 5.6% vs. 0.2%, respectively). Hesitancy and resistance were explained by female gender, Arab ethnicity, migrant status/type, and concerns about vaccine side-effects. COVID-19 related bereavement, personal infection, and quarantine status were not significantly associated with any group. Absence of or lack of concern about contracting the virus was solely associated with resistance.Interpretation: COVID-19 vaccine resistance, hesitance, and concern about side-effects is high in Qatar’s population compared with those globally. Urgent public health engagement should focus on women, Qataris (non-migrants) and those of Arab ethnicity.Funding: This study was funded by the Emergency Response Grant at Qatar University (QUERG-CAS-2020-1).Declaration of Interests: P.M.H. reports personal fees from Janssen, Lundbeck, Otsuka, New Bridge Pharmaceuticals and Sunovion, outside the submitted work. All other authors report no conflicts of interest.Ethics Approval Statement: The study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Boards at Qatar University (QU-IRB 1338-EA/20) and Hamad Medical Corporation (MRC-05-089).

Transnational practices of migrants from post-Soviet states in Russia

For the first time, using quantitative survey data, the author analyze prevalence of the main transnational practices of migrants from the post-Soviet states in the Moscow region. The empirical basis of the study consists of the sociological surveys of migrants conducted in 2017 and 2020 by the Center for Ethnopolitical and Regional Studies for the Higher School of Economics and the team of the Center for the Study of Interethnic Relations of the IS FCTAS RAS . The author concludes that close relationships exist between migrants and their countries of origin, as well as the widespread prevalence of transnational practices. The basis of ties consists of frequent trips to the country of origin, the presence of a large number of relatives in the country of origin, regular communication with them, as well as regular cash transfers from migrants to their homeland, which form the basis of the household economy in these countries. The relationship of some transnational practices (including remittances) with the long-term migration strategies of the respondents suggests that the reorientation of migration from short-term to long-term will also reduce the scale of transnationalism.

Доступ мигрантов к социальным услугам в России на примере граждан Азербайджана

В статье анализируется уровень доступности социальных услуг для мигрантов из Азербайджана в России, а также изменения этого уровня в связи с новациями в миграционном законодательстве 2013–2016 гг. В качестве основных индикаторов анализа выбраны: легальность и условия труда, медицинские услуги, образование детей, жилищные условия азербайджанских мигрантов в сравнении с мигрантами из других стран СНГ. Эмпирическую базу исследования составили данные всероссийских социологических опросов трудовых мигрантов Центра этнополитических и региональных исследований для НИУ-ВШЭ в 2011 и 2017 гг. Также использованы данные полуструктурированных интервью с экспертами, информация из открытых источников о законодательном регулировании миграции. Исследование показало, что мигранты из Азербайджана, являясь одной из наименее легализованных групп на российском рынке труда, имеют тот же уровень доступа к социальным услугам, что и мигранты из других стран СНГ. Из-за высокого уровня неформальной занятости распространены случаи нарушения их трудовых прав, они не могут быть защищены в полной мере. Однако, ввиду высокой в сравнении с другими мигрантами платежеспособности, азербайджанцы имеют равный либо лучший доступ к медицинскому обслуживанию, образованию детей и жилищным условиям. Во-первых, они чаще других готовы обращаться за платными медицинскими услугами. Во-вторых, у азербайджанских мигрантов шире доступ к детским дошкольным учреждениям в России в сравнении с выходцами из Средней Азии, а к общеобразовательным учреждениям – на таком же уровне, как и у других мигрантов. В-третьих, азербайджанцы больше, чем другие группы мигрантов обеспечены отдельным жильем, в том числе собственным. Делается вывод о том, что в 2017 г. по сравнению с 2011 г. доступ мигрантов в целом, в том числе и азербайджанцев, к социальным услугам улучшился. Часть этих изменений связана с поправками в миграционное законодательство 2013–2016 гг.

Human security of urban migrant populations affected by length of residence and environmental hazards

It is widely suggested that migration is a key mechanism linking climate change to violent conflict, particularly through migration increasing the risks of conflict in urban destinations. Yet climate change also creates new forms of insecurity through distress migration, immobility and vulnerability that are prevalent in urban destination locations. Here we examine the extent and nature of human security in migration destinations and test whether insecurity is affected by length of residence and environmental hazards. The study develops an index measure of human security at the individual level to include environmental and climate-related hazards as well as sources of well-being, fear of crime and violence, and mental health outcomes. It examines the elements of human security that explain the prevalence of insecurity among recent and established migrants in low-income urban neighbourhoods. The study reports on data collected in Chattogram in Bangladesh through a survey of migrants (N = 447) and from qualitative data derived using photo elicitation techniques with cohorts of city planners and migrants. The results show that environmental hazards represent an increasing source of perceived insecurity to migrant populations over time, with longer-term migrants perceiving greater insecurity than more recent arrivals, suggesting lack of upward social mobility in low-income slums. Ill-health, fear of eviction, and harassment and violence are key elements of how insecurity is experienced, and these are exacerbated by environmental hazards such as flooding. The study expands the concept of security to encompass central elements of personal risk and well-being and outlines the implications for climate change.

Social Stratification and Tooth Loss Among Migrant and Non-Migrant Middle-Aged and Older Adults in China

This study investigated the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and tooth loss in middle-aged and older adults by migrant status. The sample included 2,390 participants aged 45-65 from the 2017 Urbanization and New Migrant Survey conducted from 10 cities in China. Results from the negative binomial regression and the marginal effect analysis showed that education, income, and residence in a developed city were negatively associated with tooth loss for non-migrants and migrants with high levels of education. These associations were not found to be significant for migrants with low education levels. The findings suggest that SES plays a more significant role in tooth retention for migrants with higher education levels compared to those with lower education levels. These results may largely be due to different levels of health literacy and unequal access to dental care services. Tailored intervention needs to be target migrant populations with low SES.

How Does Adult Children Migration Effects Older Adults Aging in Place? Community and Individual Level Interventions

In India, the increasing emigration by adult children for job opportunity and socio-economic betterment has left vulnerable older adults (OA) to age in place. Almost ‘one of out of ten households in Tamil Nadu state has one or more (e) migrants’ (TN Migration Survey 2015), leaving behind OA who traditionally depend on family as a major source of support. There are few studies on impact of immigration of male adult on wife and children who are left behind, but hardly any research on OA who stay behind. This study aims to understand the social, emotional, economic, and health experiences of OA in one of the districts that has the highest rates of out migration. Data was collected using in-person interviews with 304 randomly selected OA whose adult child had migrated to another country. Nearly half of OA live alone (49.7%), have one or more chronic diseases (60%), require support for meeting their ADLs (90%), and half receive no financial support from adult child (50%) contrary to expectations of providing care for OA in this culture. Findings also reveal that persons over the age of 70 exhibit greater coping skills despite lower functional health, smaller social network, and less financial resources. A significant relationship exists between frequency of visits by adult child and reported levels of anxiety and depression. Implication discussions explore solutions at individual, community and policy levels to address vulnerabilities of the older population who are left behind in villages and towns of India due the globalization related mobility.

International Migration, Return Migration and Occupational Mobility: Evidence from Kerala, India

This paper examines the impact of international migration on the occupational mobility of workers over the three phases of labour migration—pre-emigration, emigration and post-return—by constructing mobility matrices using the sample of return emigrants from the Kerala Migration Survey 2011. The study finds that a large proportion of emigrants from Kerala take up occupations in the service sector while abroad irrespective of their pre-emigration occupation or training. Most emigrants return, while they are still in the labour force, and the major reason for returning is adverse labour market conditions at the destination. Though around half of the return emigrants report the inclination to take up entrepreneurial activities, only about 10% are engaged in self-employment, suggesting that there is no real evidence of a rapid boost to entrepreneurship. The study finds that there is moderate mobility between the pre-emigration occupation and the occupation abroad as well as between the occupation abroad and post-return, but not between occupations in the pre-emigration–post-return phases, indicating that workers move out of their traditional occupations while abroad, but most likely return to their original occupation post-return. Work experience abroad does not cause any significant upward mobility in any occupational groups except among professionals, who move to managerial positions post-return.

Living in limbo: Economic and social costs for refugees

AbstractOur paper tests the hypothesis that living in limbo could have negative consequences for the socio‐economic integration of refugees. We define limbo as a protracted period when asylum seekers are waiting for the decision concerning their permanent refugee status. Relying on the French survey of migrants, France's longitudinal survey of migrants (ELIPA), we measure integration by labour market participation, fluency in French, finding new French friends and studying. To account for the endogeneity of limbo, we instrument it with the administrative backlog. We find that living longer in limbo during the asylum‐seeking period slows down future integration of refugees, but results differ with respect to gender and educational attainment. While having lived longer in limbo slows down most aspects of socio‐economic integration for refugees with no degree or a high school degree, those with a bachelor's degree do not experience negative effects. Male refugees who had lived longer in limbo have a lower likelihood of being employed and studying in France, while similar females make fewer French friends.

Cognitive abilities and income: preliminary evidence from a developing country

PurposeRelated literature finds that human capital proxied by cognitive abilities is an important antecedent of numerous specific life outcomes. The purpose of this study is to extend existing evidence by investigating the link between cognitive skills and income in Tajikistan. Tajikistan is a landlocked low-income country situated in Central Asia. Its population is 9.1 million people and gross domestic product per capita of US$822. According to the World Bank, Tajikistan has made significant progress in decreasing poverty levels from 83% in 2000 to 29.5% in 2017.Design/methodology/approachThe data for this study comes from the 2013 Jobs, Skills and Migration Survey conducted by the World Bank and the German Society for International Cooperation. The main explanatory variable of the study is the cognitive abilities index of the respondents. The survey used item response theory (IRT) approach to estimate the ability of respondents. IRT is a method or a set of statistical frameworks, used to explore assessment item data, such as cognitive abilities assessment data. The wage function was estimated using the ordinary least squares method because the results are easier to interpret (Jencks, 1979; Bowleset al., 2001; Groves, 2006).FindingsThe baseline results are reported in Table 2. The results in Column 1 demonstrated the link between cognitive abilities and income without control variables (unconditional model). As expected, cognitive abilities are positively and significantly related to income (a1 = 0.0715,p< 0.01). The results from the unconditional model suggest that one standard deviation increase in cognitive abilities is associated with a nearly 17% increase in income.Research limitations/implicationsHowever, the study has a number of limitations. First, the dependent variable measures the overall income of the respondent, which includes the profit from other businesses. The survey does not provide data on monthly wages of respondents. Second, the sample may not perfectly represent the overall population of Tajikistan. To partially resolve this issue, this paper re-estimated out results for various sub-samples. Another important limitation of this study is the lack of respondent’s family background, which is an important correlate of human capital and income.Practical implicationsThe results in the study offer preliminary evidence on the link between cognitive abilities and income in Tajikistan. However, the results of the study also suggest that both measures of human capital are positively related to income. Therefore, policymakers in Tajikistan should invest greater resources to health care, education and training programs as cognitive skills can be built in particular in the early stages of the life cycle. Indeed, Tajikistan has a significant potential for economic growth model driven by human capital. According to the World Bank, the adult literacy rate in Tajikistan is 100%, which is significantly above of what is observed in other developing countries. This may imply that the human potential in this country is considerable, and further investment in soft and hard skills would have a positive impact on economic growth.Originality/valueThis paper offers new evidence on the link between cognitive abilities and income, using data from Tajikistan. First, this paper finds that cognitive abilities are positively and significantly correlated with income. Second, this paper finds that this link remains robust even when this paper control for a large set of personal and job-related characteristics. The results from the unconditional model suggest that one standard deviation increase in cognitive abilities is associated with nearly a 17% increase in income.

Experiences of discrimination and self-reported health in Chinese migrants: a structural equation model

BackgroundMany migrants suffer from discrimination and poor health in China. We sought to examine the associations between experiences of discrimination and self-reported health among internal migrants in China, as well as the mediators of social integration and perceived stress.MethodsThe data was obtained from a specific survey of migrants, as a part of the National Health and Family Planning Dynamic Monitoring for Migrants conducted in 2014. A total of 15,999 migrants aged 15 to 59 years were recruited by a stratified, multistage clustered sampling procedure in eight Chinese cities. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was conducted.ResultsThe results indicated that experiences of discrimination were associated with worse self-reported health (β = − 0.32, P < 0.001), less social integration (β = − 0.25, P < 0.001), as well as higher perceived stress (β = 0.21, P < 0.01). Both objectively measured socioeconomic status (β = 0.21, P < 0.001) and subjective social status (β = 0.21, P < 0.01) had significantly positive correlations with self-reported health.ConclusionsThe discrimination, social exclusion and perceived stress experienced by migrants have significant implications on their health.

Migrant adolescents\u2019 behavioral problems compared to host adolescents and adolescents in their region of origin: a longitudinal study

BackgroundSince the 1990s, families from the ecologically hostile mountainous southern areas of Ningxia Province, China, have been migrating to the northern areas of the province. This study compared the prevalence of behavioral problems among migrant adolescents to those among host adolescents (adolescents from the northern areas) and adolescents in the region of origin (adolescents from the southern areas), to determine whether ecological migration is related to adolescent behavioral problems, and possible changes in such problems over time.MethodsWe used the Children and Adolescents Ecological Migration Survey on Mental Health, administered to 4805 students aged 12–16 years and their parents between 2012 and 2014 (W1), of whom 1753 students and their parents completed the follow-up between 2014 and 2017 (W2). Parents answered questions related to adolescent behavioral problems, main source of family income, parents’ desire to reverse migrate, improved standard of living, and parents’ educational attainment, while children completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and a classroom environment questionnaire.ResultsThe prevalence of behavioral problems among the migrant adolescents (28.04%) was significantly higher than among host adolescents (21.59%) or adolescents in the region of origin (24.37%; p < 0.001) at W1. After adjusting for gender and age, parents’ work outside the home was the main source of family income (OR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.13–1.78), and adolescents’ learning burden (OR = 1.04, 95% CI = 1.01–1.06) in school negatively influenced behavioral problems. Strong student-teacher relationships (OR = 0.97,95% CI = 0.94–0.99) and parents who had no intention to move back to the original residence (OR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.52–0.94) exerted a protective effect at W1; at W2, a protective effect was associated with improved living conditions (OR = 0.39–0.55, 95% CI = 0.25–0.84). The extent of behavioral problems among migrant adolescents significantly decreased after two years.ConclusionEcological migration will increase children’s behavioral problems in the early stage, with various factors influencing the extent of these problems.