Surfaces Of Processing Equipment Research Articles

Preparation and Formation Mechanism Study of Antibiofilm Coating Based on Phase Transition of Glutenin.

The surface of food processing equipment is easily affected by biofilm-forming bacteria, leading to cross-contamination and food safety hazards. The critical issue is how to endow the surface of contact materials with antibacterial and antibiofilm abilities. A sustainable, stable, and antibiofilm coating was prepared by phase transition of glutenin. The disulfide bonds in glutenin were reduced by tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine, triggering the phase transition of glutenin. Hydrophobic interactions and intermolecular disulfide bonds may be the primary forces. Furthermore, the phase-transited products formed a nanoscale coating on the surface of stainless steel and glass under their own adhesion force and gravity. The coating exhibited good stability in harsh environments. More importantly, after 3 h of direct contact, the colony of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus decreased by one logarithm. The amount of biofilm was observed to be significantly decreased through optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. This article provides a foundational module for developing novel coatings.

Identification of microbial communities and multi-species biofilms contamination in seafood processing environments with different hygiene conditions

Biofilms formed by spoilage and pathogenic bacteria increase microbial persistence, causing an adverse influence on the quality of seafood. The mono-species biofilms are widely reported, however, the contamination of multi-species biofilms and their matrix in food environments are still not fully understood. Here, we assessed the contamination of multi-species biofilms in three seafood processing environments with different hygiene levels by detecting bacterial number and three biofilm matrix components (carbohydrates, extracellular DNA (eDNA), and proteins). Samples comprising seven food matrix surfaces and eight food processing equipment surfaces were collected from two seafood processing plants (XY and XC) and one seafood market (CC). The results showed that the bacterial counts ranged from 1.89 to 4.91 CFU/cm2 and 5.68 to 9.15 BCE/cm2 in these surfaces by cultivation and real-time PCR, respectively. Six biofilm hotspots were identified, including four in CC and two in XY. Among the three processing environments, the amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) of Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria decreased with improved processing hygiene, while Firmicutes showed a decrease in the four most abundant phyla. The most prevalent bacteria belonged to genera Psychrobacter, Acinetobacter, and Pseudomonas, demonstrating the significant differences and alteration in bacterial community composition during different environments. From the biofilm hotspots, 15 isolates with strong biofilm forming ability were identified, including 7 Pseudomonas, 7 Acinetobacter, and 1 Psychrobacter. The Pseudomonas isolates exhibited the highest production of EPS components and three strong motilities, whose characteristics were positively correlated. Thus, this study verified the presence of multi-species biofilms in seafood processing environments, offering preliminary insights into the diversity of microbial communities during processing. It highlights potential contamination sources and emphasizes the importance of understanding biofilms composition to control biofilms formation in seafood processing environments.

Antibiofilm activity and synergistic effects of DNase I and Lysostaphin against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms

Abstract In recent years, food safety has become the focus of global public health concerns. Microbial contamination is one of the most common food safety issues. Staphylococcus aureus is a common foodborne pathogen that can form biofilms on the surface of food processing equipment, leading to greater resistance to antimicrobial agents than occurs with planktonic bacteria. In this work, recombinant Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells expressing optimised lysostaphin (Lst) were constructed, recombinant Lst was produced and purified, and Lst enzymatic assays were performed, followed by antimicrobial testing of Lst. Finally, a mixture of Lst and DNase I was tested for antibiofilm activity. The protein content of purified Lst was 0.6 mg/mL and the enzyme activity was 240 U/mL. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Lst against S. aureus was 0.1 μg/mL. At 1 MIC, Lst exerted an effect on the growth, cell wall integrity and cell membrane permeability of S. aureus. Although Lst alone also showed good inhibition and disruption of S. aureus biofilms, inhibition and disruption of S. aureus biofilms was significantly greater when Lst was mixed with DNase I. This is probably because DNase I removes extracellular DNA, affecting biofilm formation and dispersing mature biofilms, and thereby facilitating penetration of Lst.

Rapid discrimination of Lentilactobacillus parabuchneri biofilms via in situ infrared spectroscopy

Microbial contamination in food industry is a source of foodborne illnesses and biofilm-related diseases. In particular, biogenic amines (BAs) accumulated in fermented foods via lactic acid bacterial activity exert toxic effects on human health. Among these, biofilms of histamine-producer Lentilactobacillus parabuchneri strains adherent at food processing equipment surfaces can cause food spoilage and poisoning. Understanding the chain of contamination is closely related to elucidating molecular mechanisms of biofilm formation. In the present study, an innovative approach using integrated chemical sensing technologies is demonstrated to fundamentally understand the temporal behavior of biofilms at the molecular level by combining mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy and fluorescence sensing strategies. Using these concepts, the biofilm forming capacity of six cheese-isolated L. parabuchneri strains (IPLA 11151, 11150, 11129, 11125, 11122 and 11117) was examined. The cut-off values for the biofilm production ability of each strain were quantified using crystal violet (CV) assays. Real-time infrared attenuated total reflection spectroscopy (IR-ATR) combined with fluorescence quenching oxygen sensing provides insight into distinct molecular mechanisms for each strain. IR spectra showed significant changes in characteristic bands of amides, lactate, nucleic acids, and extracellular polymeric substances (i.e., lipopolysaccharides, phospholipids, phosphodiester, peptidoglycan, etc.), which are major contributors to biofilm maturation involved in the initial adhesion processes. Chemometric methods including principal component analysis and partial least square-discriminant analysis facilitated the rapid determination and classification of cheese isolated L. parabuchneri strains unambiguously differentiating the IR signatures based on their ability to produce biofilm. All biofilms were morphologically characterized by confocal laser scanning microscopy on relevant industrial equipment surfaces. In summary, this innovative approach combining MIR spectroscopy with luminescence sensing enables real-time insight into the molecular composition and formation of L. parabuchneri biofilms.

Fouling resistance study in industrial tubular reactor for low density polyethylene production

Fouling is the development and buildup of unwelcome elements on the surface of processing equipment. Fouling study in LDPE production via tubular reactor is very important with regard to safety, economic and productivity. However, the fouling study in LDPE production was rarely reported in the literature due to complex chemical reaction and reactor configuration. In this work, the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) computed by component’s physical properties (method 1) and log mean temperature difference of plant data (method 2) were studied. The U obtained from the correlation method is larger than plant data. The U variations obtained from industrial data were employed in this work to determine the maximum reactor fouling resistance Rfmax. The Rf reaction zone is significantly lesser than the Rf cooling zone.The fouling investigation utilized fouling resistance (Rf) as the fouling measurement. Rf is signified by the alteration of U dynamically over ten hours. The Rfmax achieved is 50.0 cm2.s.K/cal. The Rfmax value obtained were then applied as a constraint for the optimization study.

Decontamination of Spores on Model Stainless-Steel Surface by Using Foams Based on Alkyl Polyglucosides.

In the food industry, the surfaces of processing equipment are considered to be major factors in the risk of food contamination. The cleaning process of solid surfaces is essential, but it requires a significant amount of water and chemicals. Herein, we report the use of foam flows based on alkyl polyglucosides (APGs) to remove spores of Bacillus subtilis on stainless-steel surfaces as the model-contaminated surface. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was also studied as an anionic surfactant. Foams were characterized during flows by measuring the foam stability and the bubble size. The efficiency of spores' removal was assessed by enumerations. We showed that foams based on APGs could remove efficiently the spores from the surfaces, but slightly less than foams based on SDS due to an effect of SDS itself on spores removal. The destabilization of the foams at the end of the process and the recovery of surfactant solutions were also evaluated by using filtration. Following a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, we evaluated the impact of the foam flow on the global environmental footprint of the process. We showed significant environmental impact benefits with a reduction in water and energy consumption for foam cleaning. APGs are a good choice as surfactants as they decrease further the environmental impacts.

Pseudomonas fluorescens group bacterial strains interact differently with pathogens during dual-species biofilm formation on stainless steel surfaces in milk.

In order to develop strategies for preventing biofilm formation in the dairy industry, a deeper understanding of the interaction between different species during biofilm formation is necessary. Bacterial strains of the P. fluorescens group are known as the most important biofilm-formers on the surface of dairy processing equipment that may attract and/or shelter other spoilage or pathogenic bacteria. The present study used different strains of the P. fluorescens group as background microbiota of milk, and evaluated their interaction with Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Salmonella Typhimurium during dual-species biofilm formation on stainless steel surfaces. Two separate scenarios for dual-species biofilms were considered: concurrent inoculation of Pseudomonas and pathogen (CI), and delayed inoculation of pathogen to the pre-formed Pseudomonas biofilm (DI). The gram-positive pathogens used in this study did not form dual-species biofilms with P. fluorescens strains unless they were simultaneously inoculated with Pseudomonas strains. E. coli O157:H7 was able to form dual-species biofilms with all seven P. fluorescens group strains, both in concurrent (CI) and delayed (DI) inoculation. However, the percentage of contribution varied depending on the P. fluorescens strains and the inoculation scenario. S. Typhimurium contributed to biofilm formation with all seven P. fluorescens group strains under the CI scenario, with varying degrees of contribution. However, under the DI scenario, S. Typhimurium did not contribute to the biofilm formed by three of the seven P. fluorescens group strains. Overall, these are the first results to illustrate that the strains within the P. fluorescens group have significant differences in the formation of mono-or dual-species biofilms with pathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, the possibility of forming dual-species biofilms with pathogens depends on whether the pathogens form the biofilm simultaneously with the P. fluorescens group strains or whether these strains have already formed a biofilm.

Stability and Antibiofilm Efficiency of Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water Against Mixed-Species of Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus.

In the natural environment, most microorganisms live in mixed-species biofilms, in which the metabolism and growth of organisms are different from that in single-species biofilms. Adhesive bacteria and their biofilms on the surface of food processing equipment are the sources of cross-contamination, leading to the risk for humans. Slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) has been proposed as a novel sanitizer in the food and agriculture industry. In this study, we investigated the changes in the physical properties of SAEW under different conditions and the disinfection abilities of SAEW against spore-forming and non-spore-forming pathogens. Furthermore, we examined the disinfection abilities of SAEW after 12 months of shelf life on a mixed-species biofilm of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A and Staphylococcus aureus. The results showed that SAEW at 30 and 50 ppm achieved all-kill of the spore-forming pathogen Bacillus cereus within 30 s. Changes in the ACC and pH of the produced SAEW were generally affected by the storage conditions. Both spore-forming and non-spore-forming pathogens were not detected under treatment with 50 ppm SAEW for 5 min under HDPE-closed conditions throughout the whole storage period. Moreover, 25 mg/L SAEW can inactivate L. monocytogenes Scott A and S. aureus biofilm cells in ~2.45 and 2.57 log CFU/mL in biofilms within 5-min treatment. However, the decline of the two bacteria in the mixed-species biofilm was 1.95 and 1.43 log CFU/mL, respectively. The changes in the cell membrane permeability of the mixed-species biofilm under treatment with SAEW were observed by using atomic force microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. L. monocytogenes Scott A was more sensitive to SAEW in the mixed-species biofilm cells. These findings exhibited strong antibiofilm activities of SAEW in impairing biofilm cell membranes, decreasing cell density, and eliminating biofilm, which suggest that SAEW is an excellent antibacterial agent in the food processing industries.

Modelling formation and removal of biofilms in secondary dairy raw materials

Introduction. Microorganisms of dairy raw materials tend to adhere to the surfaces of processing equipment and form sustainable biofilms, which is a serious issue in the dairy industry. The goal of the present work was to investigate formation of biofilms on a glass surface in static model conditions, and removal of such biofilms by cleaning.
 Study objects and methods. The study objects were the permeates of skim milk, sweet whey and acid whey, as well as the biofilms formed and washings from glass slides. Biofilms were removed from the glass with detergents used in the dairy industry. Standard methods of determining microbiological and physicochemical properties were used to characterize the permeates. The biofilm structure and morphology of microorganisms participating in biofilm formation were investigated with a light spectroscopy. The efficiency of biofilm removal in a cleaning process was quantified with optical density of washings.
 Results and discussion. Biofilms in whey permeates formed slower compared to those in skimmed milk permeate during the first 24 h. Yeasts contributed significantly to the biofilm microflora in acid whey permeate throughout 5 days of biofilm growth. Well adhered biofilm layers were the most stable in skimmed milk permeate. The highest growth of both well and poorly adhered biofilm layers was observed in sweet whey permeate after 3–5 days. It was established that the primary attachment of microorganisms to a glass surface occurred within 8 h, mature multicultural biofilms formed within 48 h, and their partial destruction occurred within 72 h.
 Conclusion. The research results can be used to improve the cleaning equipment procedures in processing secondary dairy raw materials.

Influence of the incubation temperature and total dissolved solids concentration on the biofilm and spore formation of dairy isolates of Geobacillus stearothermophilus.

Geobacillus species are an important contaminant in the dairy industry and their presence is often considered as an indicator of poor plant hygiene with the potential to cause spoilage. They can form heat resistant spores that adhere to surfaces of processing equipment and germinate to form biofilms. Therefore, strategies aimed towards preventing or controlling biofilm formation in the dairy industry are desirable. In this study we demonstrate that the preferred temperature for biofilm and spore formation among Geobacillus stearothermophilus A1, D1, P3 and ATCC 12980 was 65°C. Increasing the total dissolved milk solids concentration to 20% (w/v) caused an apparent delay in the onset of biofilm and spore formation to detectable concentrations among all the strains at 55°C. Compared to the onset time of the biofilm formation of A1 in 10% (w/v) reconstituted skim milk, addition of milk protein (whey protein and sodium caseinate) caused an apparent delay in the onset of biofilm formation to detectable concentrations by an average of 10 h at 55°C. This study proposes that temperature and total dissolved solids concentration have a cumulative effect on the biofilm and spore formation of G. stearothermophilus A1, D1, P3 and ATCC 12980. In addition, the findings from this study may indicate that preconditioning of stainless-steel surface with adsorbed milk proteins may delay the onset of biofilm and spore formation of thermophilic bacteria during milk powder manufacture.IMPORTANCE The thermophilic bacilli, Geobacillus stearothermophilus is a predominant spoilage bacterium in milk powder manufacturing plants. If their numbers exceed the accepted levels, this may incur financial loses by lowering the price of the end product. Furthermore, they can form heat resistant spores which adhere to processing surfaces and can germinate to form biofilms. Previously conducted research had highlighted the variation in the spore and biofilm formation among three specific strains of G. stearothermophilus isolated from a milk powder manufacturing plant in New Zealand. The significance of our research is demonstrating the effect of two abiotic factors namely temperature and total dissolved solids concentration on the biofilm and spore formation of these three dairy isolates, leading to modifications in the thermal processing steps aimed towards controlling the biofilm and spore formation of G. stearothermophilus in the dairy industry.

Surface Analysis of Chamber Coating Materials Exposed to CF4/O2 Plasma

Coating the inner surfaces of high-powered plasma processing equipment has become crucial for reducing maintenance costs, process drift, and contaminants. The conventionally preferred alumina (Al2O3) coating has been replaced with yttria (Y2O3) due to the long-standing endurance achieved by fluorine-based etching; however, the continuous increase in radio frequency (RF) power necessitates the use of alternative coating materials to reduce process shift in a series of high-powered semiconductor manufacturing environments. In this study, we investigated the fluorine-based etching resistance of atmospheric pressure-sprayed alumina, yttria, yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), and yttrium oxyfluoride (YOF). The prepared ceramic-coated samples were directly exposed to silicon oxide etching, and the surfaces of the plasma-exposed samples were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. We found that an ideal coating material must demonstrate high plasma-induced structure distortion by the fluorine atom from the radical. For endurance to fluorine-based plasma exposure, the bonding structure with fluoride was shown to be more effective than oxide-based ceramics. Thus, fluoride-based ceramic materials can be promising candidates for chamber coating materials.

Development of Fluorescence Imaging Technique to Detect Fresh-Cut Food Organic Residue on Processing Equipment Surface

With increasing public demand for ready-to-eat fresh-cut food products, proper sanitation of food-processing equipment surfaces is essential to mitigate potential contamination of these products to ensure safe consumption. This study presents a sanitation monitoring technique using hyperspectral fluorescence images to detect fruit residues on food-processing equipment surfaces. An algorithm to detect residues on the surfaces of 2B-finished and #4-finished stainless-steel, both commonly used in food processing equipment, was developed. Honeydew, orange, apple, and watermelon were selected as representatives since they are mainly used as fresh-cut fruits. Hyperspectral fluorescence images were obtained for stainless steel sheets to which droplets of selected fruit juices at six concentrations were applied and allowed to dry. The most significant wavelengths for detecting juice at each concentration were selected through ANOVA analysis. Algorithms using a single waveband and using a ratio of two wavebands were developed for each sample and for all the samples combined. Results showed that detection accuracies were better for the samples with higher concentrations. The integrated algorithm had a detection accuracy of 100% and above 95%, respectively, for the original juice up to the 1:20 diluted samples and for the more dilute 1:50 to 1:100 samples, respectively. The results of this study establish that using hyperspectral imaging, even a small residual quantity that may exist on the surface of food processing equipment can be detected and that sanitation monitoring and management is possible.

Mitigating Milk-Associated Bacteria through Inducing Zinc Ions Antibiofilm Activity.

Dairy products are a sector heavily impacted by food loss, often due to bacterial contaminations. A major source of contamination is associated with the formation of biofilms by bacterial species adopted to proliferate in milk production environment and onto the surfaces of milk processing equipment. Bacterial cells within the biofilm are characterized by increased resistance to unfavorable environmental conditions and antimicrobial agents. Members of the Bacillus genus are the most commonly found spoilage microorganisms in the dairy environment. It appears that physiological behavior of these species is somehow depended on the availability of bivalent cations in the environment. One of the important cations that may affect the bacterial physiology as well as survivability are Zn2+ ions. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the antimicrobial effect of Zn2+ ions, intending to elucidate the potential of a zinc-based antibacterial treatment suitable for the dairy industry. The antimicrobial effect of different doses of ZnCl2 was assessed microscopically. In addition, expression of biofilm related genes was evaluated using RT-PCR. Analysis of survival rates following heat treatment was conducted in order to exemplify a possible applicative use of Zn2+ ions. Addition of zinc efficiently inhibited biofilm formation by B. subtilis and further disrupted the biofilm bundles. Expression of matrix related genes was found to be notably downregulated. Microscopic evaluation showed that cell elongation was withheld when cells were grown in the presence of zinc. Finally, B. cereus and B. subtilis cells were more susceptible to heat treatment after being exposed to Zn2+ ions. It is believed that an anti-biofilm activity, expressed in downregulation of genes involved in construction of the extracellular matrix, would account for the higher sensitivity of bacteria during heat pasteurization. Consequently, we suggest that Zn2+ ions can be of used as an effective antimicrobial treatment in various applications in the dairy industry, targeting both biofilms and vegetative bacterial cells.

Interspecies Interactions in Dual-Species Biofilms Formed by Psychrotrophic Bacteria and the Tolerance of Sessile Communities to Disinfectants

Biofilms on the surface of food processing equipment act as potential reservoirs of microbial contamination. Bacterial interactions are believed to play key roles in both biofilm formation and antimicrobial tolerance. In this study, Aeromonas hydrophila, Chryseobacterium oncorhynchi, and Pseudomonas libanensis, which were previously isolated from Chinese raw milk samples, were selected to establish two dual-species biofilm models (P. libanensis plus A. hydrophila and P. libanensis plus C. oncorhynchi) on stainless steel at 7°C. Subsequently, three disinfectants, hydrogen peroxide (100 ppm), peracetic acid (100 ppm), and sodium hypochlorite (100 ppm), were used to treat the developed sessile communities for 10 min. Structural changes after exposure to disinfectants were analyzed with confocal laser scanning microscopy. The cell numbers of both A. hydrophila and C. oncorhynchi recovered from surfaces increased when grown as dual species biofilms with P. libanensis. Dual-species biofilms were more tolerant of disinfectants than were each single-species biofilm. Peracetic acid was the most effective disinfectant for removing biofilms, followed by hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite. The results expand the knowledge of mixed-species biofilms formed by psychrotrophic bacteria and will be helpful for developing effective strategies to eliminate bacterial mixed-species biofilms.

Ultrasonic measurements and machine learning for monitoring the removal of surface fouling during clean-in-place processes

Cleaning is an essential operation in the food and drink manufacturing sector, although it comes with significant economic and environmental costs. Cleaning is generally performed using autonomous Clean-in-Place (CIP) processes, which often over-clean, as suitable technologies do not exist to determine when fouling has been removed from the internal surfaces of processing equipment. This research combines ultrasonic measurements and machine learning methods to determine when fouling has been removed from a test section of pipework for a range of different food materials. The results show that the proposed methodology is successful in predicting when fouling is present on the test section with accuracies up to 99% for the range of different machine learning algorithms studied. Various aspects relating to the training data set and input data selection were studied to determine their effect on the performance of the different machine learning methods studied. It was found that the classification models performed better when data points were extracted directly from the ultrasonic waves and when data sets were combined for different fouling materials.

Вибір системи легування порошкових електродних матеріалів для зміцнення робочих поверхонь обладнання з переробки деревної біомаси

Вибір системи легування порошкових електродних матеріалів для зміцнення робочих поверхонь обладнання з переробки деревної біомаси

Effects of nitrogenous substances on heat transfer fouling using model thin stillage fluids

Fouling is unwanted deposition of materials on surfaces of processing equipment, which leads to additional capital investment and lower processing efficiency. During fuel ethanol production, fouling occurs when thin stillage is concentrated into condensed distillers solubles. Investigations of protein impact on fouling are limited despite high protein concentration in thin stillage (17–33%db). Protein contributions to fouling have been verified in the dairy industry. Whey proteins and calcium phosphate interact with each other or other proteins and form aggregates on heated surfaces. Due to the complex biological composition of thin stillage, it is difficult to study a single effect on fouling without interference from other factors. The objective was to investigate fouling properties of nitrogenous substances (urea and yeast) using model fluids; effects of protease addition on fouling properties of model and commercial thin stillage fluids. Urea addition did not lead to fouling while glucose-yeast model fluids displayed fouling tendencies. Protease from pineapple stem (bromelain) incubation increased fouling in model and commercial fluids, which were indicative that hydrolyzed molecules such as peptides, amino acids or protease can be involved in deposit formation.

Multispecies biofilm formation by the contaminating microbiota in raw milk

Biofilms can be formed on the surfaces of dairy processing equipment and are a potential source of product contamination. This study evaluated the diversity of multispecies biofilms formed on stainless steel (SS) due to the contaminating microbiota in raw milk. Samples of raw milk were used: one was fresh milk and the other maintained in refrigerated bulk tanks for up to 48 h. The mesophilic aerobic contamination was ∼104 CFU ml−1 in fresh milk and 106 CFU ml−1 in bulk milk. SS coupons were kept immersed in the milk at 7 ±2 °C for 10 days, and every two days, the raw milk was changed for samples of the same origin collected on the current day. After incubation for 10 days, sessile cells in the biofilm reached 105 CFU cm−2 in the presence of fresh milk, and 106 CFU cm−2 in the presence of bulk milk. The genetic diversity analysis showed that Gammaproteobacteria and Bacilli predominated in the biofilms throughout the incubation of both milk samples and these biofilms showed a reduction in diversity over time. The main classes of bacteria found in these biofilms have representatives of great importance since many of them have spoilage potential.

A Brief Recap of Microbial Adhesion and Biofilms

Food and beverage industries operate their production units under stringent hygiene standards to verify high-quality products. However, the presence of biofilms can cause hygienic problems in the industries in the case of pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms can form biofilms, which are resistant to cleaning and disinfection. Microorganisms in biofilms are closely packed in a matrix that acts as a barrier to cleaning and disinfection. Biofilms are observed in processing equipment and open surfaces, resulting in food safety problems or weakening of production efficiency. This review provides a recap of the biofouling process, including the production mechanisms and control techniques of microbial adhesion. Microbial adhesion and colonization are the sine qua non of the establishment of bacterial pathogenesis and this report focuses on their prevention.

A brief recap of microbial adhesion and biofilms

Food and beverage industries operate their production units under stringent hygiene standards to verify high-quality products. However, the presence of biofilms can cause hygienic problems in the industries in the case of pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms can form biofilms, which are resistant to cleaning and disinfection. Microorganisms in biofilms are closely packed in a matrix that acts as a barrier to cleaning and disinfection. Biofilms are observed in processing equipment and open surfaces, resulting in food safety problems or weakening of production efficiency. This review provides a recap of the biofouling process, including the production mechanisms and control techniques of microbial adhesion. Microbial adhesion and colonization are the sine qua non of the establishment of bacterial pathogenesis and this report focuses on their prevention.