Surface Acoustic Wave Frequency Research Articles

Single-Ended Surface Acoustic Wave Pressure Resonators

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors exhibit advantageous attributes for pressure detection, including compact dimensions, cost-effectiveness, facile integration, elevated sensitivity, and a high quality factor (Q value). In this study, the single-ended resonant configuration of SAW pressure sensing element based on ST-X cut quartz was simulated and fabricated. The influence of the interdigitated transducer (IDT) and applied pressure on the resonance frequency of SAW were simulated and analyzed. The designed phase velocity (3159.344 m s−1) without IDT is closest to the theoretical phase velocity (3158 m s−1) of SAW propagation in the substrate, and the relative error is about 0.043%. The designed phase velocity of SAW dropped to 3149.198 m s−1 due to the loading of the IDT mass. With an increase in applied pressure from 0 to 350 kPa, the resonance frequency of the SAW decreases from 157.05 to 154.02 MHz, yielding a maximum linear pressure sensitivity of approximately 8.6 kHz kPa−1. The measured center frequencies of the fabricated single-ended SAW devices are predominantly clustered around 157 MHz, exhibiting a deviation of 0.46 MHz from the simulated results. The present work establishes a foundation for subsequent experimental investigations into pressure sensing.

SAW Humidity Sensing with rr-P3HT Polymer Films.

In the present paper the humidity sensing properties of regioregular rr-P3HT (poly-3-hexylthiophene) polymer films is investigated by means of surface acoustic wave (SAW) based sensors implemented on LiNbO3 (1280 Y-X) and ST-quartz piezoelectric substrates. The polymeric layers were deposited along the SAW propagation path by spray coating method and the layers thickness was measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM) technique. The response of the SAW devices to relative humidity (rh) changes in the range ~5-60% has been investigated by measuring the SAW phase and frequency changes induced by the (rh) absorption in the rr-P3HT layer. The SAW sensor implemented onto LiNbO3 showed improved performance as the thickness of the membrane increases (from 40 to 240 nm): for 240 nm thick polymeric membrane a phase shift of about -1.2 deg and -8.2 deg was measured for the fundamental (~78 MHz operating frequency) and 3rd (~234 MHz) harmonic wave at (rh) = 60%. A thick rr-P3HT film (~600 nm) was deposited onto the quartz-based SAW sensor: the sensor showed a linear frequency shift of ~-20.5 Hz per unit (rh) changes in the ~5-~50% rh range, and a quite fast response (~5 s) even at low humidity level (~5% rh). The LiNbO3 and quartz-based sensors response was assessed by using a dual delay line system to reduce unwanted common mode signals. The simple and cheap spray coating technology for the rr-P3HT polymer films deposition, complemented with fast low level humidity detection of the tested SAW sensors (much faster than the commercially available Michell SF-52 device), highlight their potential in a low-medium range humidity sensing application.

Acoustic Wave-Induced FeRh Magnetic Phase Transition and Its Application in Antiferromagnetic Pattern Writing and Erasing.

We explore the FeRh magnetic phase transition (MPT) and magnetic phase domain (MPD) with the introduction of surface acoustic waves (SAWs). The effects of the SAW pulses with different pulse widths and powers on resistance-temperature loops are investigated, revealing that the SAW can reduce the thermal hysteresis. Meanwhile, the SAW-induced comb-like antiferromagnetic (AFM) phase domains are observed. By changing the pulse width and SAW frequency, we further realize a writing-erasing process of the different comb-like AFM phase domains in the mixed-phase regime of the cooling transition branch. Resistance measurements also display the repeated SAW writing-erasing and the nonvolatile characteristic clearly. MPT paths are measured to demonstrate that short SAW pulses induce isothermal MPT and write magnetic phase patterns via the dynamic strain, whereas long SAW pulses erase patterns via the acoustothermal effect. The Preisach model is introduced to model the FeRh MPT under the SAW pulses, and the calculated results correspond well with our experiments, which reveals the SAW-induced energy modulation promotes FeRh MPT. COMSOL simulations of the SAW strain field also support our results. Our study not only can be used to reduce the thermal hysteresis but also extends the application of the SAW as a tool to write and erase AFM patterns for spintronics and magnonics.

Optically Controlled Nano-Transducers Based on Cleaved Superlattices for Monitoring Gigahertz Surface Acoustic Vibrations.

Surface acoustic waves (SAWs) convey energy at subwavelength depths along surfaces. Using interdigital transducers (IDTs) and opto-acousto-optic transducers (OAOTs), researchers have harnessed coherent SAWs with nanosecond periods and micrometer localization depth for various applications. These applications include the sensing of small amount of materials deposited on surfaces, assessing surface roughness and defects, signal processing, light manipulation, charge carrier and exciton transportation, and the study of fundamental interactions with thermal phonons, photons, magnons, and more. However, the utilization of cutting-edge OAOTs produced through surface nanopatterning techniques has set the upper limit for coherent SAW frequencies below 100 GHz, constrained by factors such as the quality and pitch of the surface nanopattern, not to mention the electronic bandwidth limitations of the IDTs. In this context, unconventional optically controlled nanotransducers based on cleaved superlattices (SLs) are here presented as an alternative solution. To demonstrate their viability, we conducted proof-of-concept experiments using ultrafast lasers in a pump-probe configuration on SLs made of alternating AlxGa1-xAs and AlyGa1-yAs layers with approximately 70 nm periodicity and cleaved along their growth direction to produce a periodic nanostructured surface. The acoustic vibrations, generated and detected by laser beams incident on the cleaved surface, span a range from 40 to 70 GHz, corresponding to the generalized surface Rayleigh mode and bulk modes within the dispersion relation. This exploration shows that, in addition to SAWs, cleaved SLs offer the potential to observe surface-skimming longitudinal and transverse acoustic waves at GHz frequencies. This proof-of-concept demonstration below 100 GHz in nanoacoustics using such an unconventional platform might be useful for realizing sub-THz to THz coherent surface acoustic vibrations in the future, as SLs can be epitaxially grown with atomic-scale layer width and quality.

Resonance analysis of longitudinal leaky surface acoustic wave third harmonic on LiNbO3/quartz bonded structure

For HF operation of surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, the resonance properties and temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) of the longitudinal leaky SAW (LLSAW) third harmonic on a bonded structure comprising a LiNbO3 (LN) thin plate and quartz support substrate were simulated using a finite element method. The theoretical results showed that, by utilizing the bonded structure, the third harmonic can be excited more strongly than when using a single LN substrate. The TCF of the LLSAW fundamental wave had larger absolute values than that of a typical SAW device.

Quantitative Ultrafast Magnetoacoustics at Magnetic Metasurfaces.

Femtosecond (fs) time-resolved magneto-optics is applied to investigate laser-excited ultrafast dynamics of one-dimensional nickel gratings on fused silica and silicon substrates for a wide range of periodicities Λ = 400-1500 nm. Multiple surface acoustic modes with frequencies up to a few tens of GHz are generated. Nanoscale acoustic wavelengths Λ/n have been identified as nth-spatial harmonics of Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (SAW) and surface skimming longitudinal wave (SSLW), with acoustic frequencies and lifetimes being in agreement with theoretical calculations. Resonant magnetoelastic excitation of the ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) by SAW's third spatial harmonic, and, most interestingly fingerprints of the parametric resonance at 1/2 SAW frequency have been observed. Numerical solutions of Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert (LLG) equation magnetoelastically driven by complex polychromatic acoustic fields quantitatively reproduce all resonances at once. Thus, our results provide a solid experimental and theoretical base for a quantitative understanding of ultrafast fs-laser-driven magnetoacoustics and tailoring the magnetic-grating-based metasurfaces at the nanoscale.

Phonon–magnon conversion using longitudinal leaky surface acoustic waves through magnetoelastic coupling

Surface acoustic waves (SAWs) can transmit magnetization oscillation inside magnetoelastic films in the form of magnetoacoustic waves. If the frequency and wavenumber of SAWs match those of spin waves, magnon excitation can be observed. In this work, we studied the phonon–magnon conversion excited by longitudinal leaky SAWs, which possess the same dominant strain component like Rayleigh-type SAWs but a much higher phase velocity. The measured transmission power absorptions of both SAW modes due to spin wave resonance follow a linear frequency dependence and exhibit a fourfold symmetry. We demonstrate that longitudinal leaky SAWs can serve as a very effective means to excite stronger phonon–magnon coupling than Rayleigh SAWs at a lower wave number.

Coexistence of two hole phases in high-quality p−GaAs/AlGaAs in the vicinity of Landau-level filling factors ν=1 and ν=(1/3)

We focused on the transverse AC magnetoconductance of a high-mobility $p$-GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well $(p=1.2\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{11}{\mathrm{cm}}^{\ensuremath{-}2})$ in the vicinity of two values of the Landau-level filling factor $\ensuremath{\nu}$: $\ensuremath{\nu}=1$ (integer quantum Hall effect) and $\ensuremath{\nu}=1/3$ (fractional quantum Hall effect). The complex transverse AC conductance ${\ensuremath{\sigma}}_{xx}^{\mathrm{AC}}(\ensuremath{\omega})$ was found from simultaneous measurements of attenuation and velocity of surface acoustic waves propagating along the interface between a piezoelectric crystal and the two-dimensional hole system under investigation. We analyzed both the real and imaginary parts of the hole conductance and compared the similarities and differences between the results for filling factor 1 and filling factor 1/3. Both to the left and to the right of these values maxima of a specific shape, ``wings,'' arose in the $\ensuremath{\sigma}(\ensuremath{\nu})$ dependences at those two $\ensuremath{\nu}$. Analysis of the results of our acoustic measurements at different temperatures and surface acoustic wave frequencies allowed us to attribute these wings to the formation of collective localized states, namely, the domains of a pinned Wigner crystal, i.e., a Wigner solid. While the Wigner solid has been observed in 2D hole systems previously, we were able to detect it at the highest hole density and, therefore, the lowest hole-hole interaction reported.

Generation of Microwaves With Tuneable Frequencies in Ultracompact “Magnon Microwave Antenna” via Phonon-Magnon-Photon Coupling

Here, we report a “magnon microwave antenna” (MMA) for the generation of microwaves with tuneable frequencies, based on modulation of confined spin waves (SWs) in the patterned array of magnetostrictive nanomagnets/piezoelectric heterostructures caused by the surface acoustic waves (SAWs). A SAW launched on a piezoelectric substrate produces a periodic strain within the nanomagnets patterned on it, which, in turn, stimulates magnetization precession resulting in different magneto-dynamical resonance modes in the array of nanomagnets with a rich SW texture. The generated SWs (magnons) further interact with the EM radiation (photons) at the SAW frequency. The phonon-magnon-photon coupling in the patterned array of nanowires (NWs) generates a 0.56 GHz microwave frequency with a 13.9 MHz linewidth and a <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${Q}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -factor of 40, while that in a matrix of nanodots (having same overall area) provides tuneable frequencies leading up to 30 GHz with a linewidth of 59.1 MHz and an enhanced <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${Q}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -factor of 439; having nonvolatile spin textures in both the cases. The generated nonvolatile spin textures of the NWs/nanodots can also be useful in energy-efficient logic and low-power computing applications.

Strategies for Giant Mass Sensitivity Using Super-High-Frequency Acoustic Waves

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are powerful platforms for mass sensing, chemical vapor or gas detection, and biomolecular identification. Great efforts have been made to achieve high sensitivities by using super-high-frequency SAW devices. Conventional SAW sensing is based on mass-loading effects at the acoustic wave propagation (or delay line) region between two interdigitated transducers (IDTs). However, for many super-high-frequency SAW devices with their small sizes, there is a huge challenge that the sensitivity is difficult to be further increased, simply because there are very limited areas between the IDTs to deposit a sensing layer. Herein, we proposed a novel strategy based on giant mass-sensitivity effects generated on the global area of acoustic wave device (defined as areas of both delay line region and IDTs), which significantly enhances sensitivity and reduces the detection limit of the SAW device. Both theoretical analysis and experimental results proved this new strategy and mechanism, which are mainly attributed to the efficient energy confinement at the IDTs’ region for the super-high-frequency SAW devices. The achieved mass sensitivity using this new strategy is as high as 2590 MHz <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\cdot $ </tex-math></inline-formula> mm <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{{2}} \cdot \mu \text{g}^{-{1}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> , which is about 500 times higher than that obtained from only using the acoustic wave propagation region with a SAW frequency of 4.43 GHz. Hypersensitive humidity detection has been demonstrated using this newly proposed sensing platform, achieving an extremely high sensitivity of 278 kHz/%RH and the fast response and recovery times of ~37 and ~35 s, respectively.

Study on dispersion and attenuation of laser-induced surface acoustic wave by grinding surface roughness

The dispersion and attenuation of surface acoustic wave (SAW) are important indicators for evaluating the damage of machined surface layer. However, the dispersion and attenuation of SAW is also affected by surface roughness. The finite element method can simulate the rough surface without surface damage. Based on the measured surface profiles of roughness profiler, a series of grinding surfaces of C45E steel with different surface roughness Ra are simulated by finite element method, and the dispersion and attenuation of laser-induced SAW are studied. It is found that with the increase of roughness Ra, the increase of dispersion is relatively uniform, while the increase of attenuation not. The possible reason is that the dispersion is mainly affected by the average amplitude of roughness, while the occasional deep valley profile has a great influence on the attenuation. Compared with the experimental data, it is found that the velocity variation of 10–40 MHz SAW caused by Ra 0.12–0.75 μm surface roughness accounts for 8%–19% of the total velocity variation, and the proportion increases with the increase of roughness. The attenuation of 15 MHz SAW caused by surface roughness accounts for 8%–13% of the total attenuation. For a rough surface, dispersion is approximately linear with the frequency of SAW, while the attenuation coefficient increases sharply with the increase of frequency. Therefore, it is necessary to first evaluate the influence of surface roughness, especially the influence on attenuation, when the dispersion and attenuation of SAW are used to evaluate the machined surface damage. The results of this paper can be used to evaluate the influence of roughness on the dispersion and attenuation of SAW, and reduce the deviation in the evaluation of machined surface damage.

A novel progressive wave gyroscope based on acousto-optic effects

We propose and numerically investigate a brand-new, high-sensitivity progressive wave gyroscope based on acousto-optic effects for the measurement of rotational angular velocity. Unlike the traditional surface acoustic wave (SAW) gyroscope, which uses shifts in the SAW frequency to characterize the rotational angular velocity, this study uses acousto-optic effects to detect changes in refractive index caused by mechanical strain, measuring the angular velocity by the output optical power intensity of the optical waveguide. The three-dimensional finite element analysis method is utilized to build an SAW excitation model and optical detection model. We show that the sensitivity of the SAW gyroscope is highly dependent upon geometric parameters of the structure and that the mechanical strain induced by the progressive wave of the SAW can be effectively measured by the optical power intensity under the action of external angular velocity. The superiority of the proposed structure is substantiated by its achievement of a theoretical sensitivity of 1.8647 (mW/m2)/(rad/s) and high impact resistance of 220,000 g. By means of normalization, the sensitivity of the proposed structure can be enhanced by four orders of magnitude compared to the traditional SAW gyroscope. The novel structure combines the advantages of both conventional microscale vibrating gyroscopes and optical gyroscopes, providing a powerful solution for performance enhancement of SAW gyroscopes and, thereby, enabling application in the field of inertial devices.

Removal of Non-Specifically Bound Proteins Using Rayleigh Waves Generated on ST-Quartz Substrates.

Label-free biosensors are plagued by the issue of non-specific protein binding which negatively affects sensing parameters such as sensitivity, selectivity, and limit-of-detection. In the current work, we explore the possibility of using the Rayleigh waves in ST-Quartz devices to efficiently remove non-specifically bound proteins via acoustic streaming. A coupled-field finite element (FE) fluid structure interaction (FSI) model of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) device based on ST-Quartz substrate in contact with a liquid loading was first used to predict trends in forces related to SAW-induced acoustic streaming. Based on model predictions, it is found that the computed SAW body force is sufficient to overcome adhesive forces between particles and a surface while lift and drag forces prevent reattachment for a range of SAW frequencies. We further performed experiments to validate the model predictions and observe that the excitation of Rayleigh SAWs removed non-specifically bound (NSB) antigens and antibodies from sensing and non-sensing regions, while rinsing and blocking agents were ineffective. An amplified RF signal applied to the device input disrupted the specific interactions between antigens and their capture antibody as well. ST-quartz allows propagation of Rayleigh and leaky SH-SAW waves in orthogonal directions. Thus, the results reported here could allow integration of three important biosensor functions on a single chip, i.e., removal of non-specific binding, mixing, and sensing in the liquid phase.

Enhanced acoustofluidic mixing in a semicircular microchannel using plate mode coupling in a surface acoustic wave device

In this study, we present enhanced acoustic mixing inside a semicircular microfluidic channel via acoustic streaming induced by acoustic plate modes (APMs) of a 500-μm-thick double-side polished lithium-niobate (LiNbO3) substrate. We demonstrated that the APMs supported by the LiNbO3 substrate can be excited by an interdigitated transducer (IDT) at higher frequencies, in addition to conventional surface acoustic waves (SAWs), and can generate stronger acoustic streaming flow (ASF) and stirring effects. Consequently, rapid and enhanced mixing processes were observed in the channel. We conducted full-wave modeling of the device with finite element (FE) simulation to elucidate the acoustic process and mixing behaviors of the APM-based approach. Subsequently, we fabricated the acoustofluidic device using a standard photolithographic process and a 3D-printed replica molding method. The measured excitation spectrum of SAW and APM agrees with the numerical prediction; additionally, experiments on mixing and 2 µm particle motion in the continuous channel flow validate the ability of the device to enhance micromixing using APM frequencies compared with that using SAWs in our device. Our approach enables distinctive APMs to be fully coupled to the SAW-based acoustofluidic platform, which potentially enables an integrated design for the use of SAW and APM frequencies, acoustic energy, and wave fields in a single system. Our results also suggest innovative applications of the conventional SAW acoustofluidic devices to extended frequency regimes via APMs without reducing the substrate thickness and IDT pitch.

Spin Wave Electromagnetic Nano-Antenna Enabled by Tripartite Phonon-Magnon-Photon Coupling.

Tripartite coupling between phonons, magnons, and photons in a periodic array of elliptical magnetostrictive nanomagnets delineated on a piezoelectric substrate to form a 2D two‐phase multiferroic crystal is investigated. Surface acoustic waves (SAW) (phonons) of 5–35 GHz frequency launched into the substrate cause the magnetizations of the nanomagnets to precess at the frequency of the wave, giving rise to confined spin‐wave modes (magnons) within the nanomagnets. The spin waves, in turn, radiate electromagnetic waves (photons) into the surrounding space at the SAW frequency. Here, the phonons couple into magnons, which then couple into photons. This tripartite phonon‐magnon‐photon coupling is thus exploited to implement an extreme sub‐wavelength electromagnetic antenna whose measured radiation efficiency and antenna gain exceed the approximate theoretical limits for traditional antennas of the same dimensions by more than two orders of magnitude at some frequencies. Micro‐magnetic simulations are in excellent agreement with experimental observations and provide insight into the spin‐wave modes that couple into radiating electromagnetic modes to implement the antenna.

Numerical investigation of particle deflection in tilted-angle standing surface acoustic wave microfluidic devices

• Numerical model developed for particle trajectories in acoustofluidic separation. • Effect of related parameters of acoustic and flow fields on trajectories is analyzed. • Two-stage separation demonstrated for exosome-sized particles from whole blood. • The model has potential for optimal design of acoustofluidic separation systems. The tilted-angle standing surface acoustic wave (taSSAW) microfluidic device has become a powerful tool for biosample separation due to its biocompatibility and non-contact, label-free, and high-efficiency nature. Studying and modeling particle deflection in a microfluid environment containing a taSSAW field is essential in the design of robust taSSAW-based microfluidic devices. Here, we present a numerical model taking into consideration fluid viscous drag force and the acoustic radiation force induced by scattering of acoustic waves for the study of particle deflection. The reliability of the model is validated by comparing our predictions with data from existing literature. In order to support our prediction experimentally, we fabricated a taSSAW microfluidic chip using 128° YX LiNbO 3 , and the deflection results for 3- and 7-μm polystyrene microspheres concur with the numerical estimation. The effects on particle deflection by parameters such as pre-focusing, pre-focusing width, average flow velocity, acoustic pressure amplitude, tilted angle, and surface acoustic wave frequency on particle deflection are then analyzed. This model could be used to optimize the design and better understand the mechanism of taSSAW microfluidic devices.

Generation and detection of 50 GHz surface acoustic waves by extreme ultraviolet pulses

We use femtosecond extreme ultraviolet pulses derived from a free electron laser to excite and probe surface acoustic waves (SAWs) on the (001) surface of single crystal SrTiO3. SAWs are generated by a pair of 39.9 nm pulses crossed at the sample with the crossing angle defining the SAW wavelength at 84 nm. Detection of SAWs is performed via diffraction of a time-delayed 13.3 nm probe pulse by SAW-induced surface ripples. Despite the low reflectivity of the sample in the extreme ultraviolet range, the reflection mode detection is found to be efficient because of an increase in the diffraction efficiency for shorter wavelengths. We describe a methodology for extracting the SAW attenuation in the presence of a thermal grating, which is based on measuring the decay of oscillations at twice the SAW frequency. The proposed approach can be used to study ultrahigh frequency SAWs in a broad range of materials and will bridge the wave vector gap in surface phonon spectroscopy between Brillouin scattering and He atom scattering.

Remotely Pumped GHz Antibunched Emission from Single Exciton Centers in GaAs

Quantum communication networks require on-chip transfer and manipulation of single particles as well as their interconversion to single photons for long-range information exchange. Flying excitons propelled by GHz surface acoustic waves (SAWs) are outstanding messengers to fulfill these requirements. Here, we demonstrate the acoustic manipulation of single exciton centers consisting of individual excitons bound to shallow impurities centers embedded in a semiconductor quantum well. Time-resolved photoluminescence studies show that the emission intensity and energy from these centers oscillate at the SAW frequency of 3.5 GHz. Furthermore, these centers can be remotely pumped via acoustic transport of flying excitons along a quantum well channel over several microns. Time correlation studies reveal that the centers emit anti-bunched light, thus acting as single-photon sources operating at GHz frequencies. Our results pave the way for the exciton-based on-demand manipulation and on-chip transfer of single excitons at microwave frequencies with a natural photonic interface.

On the use of non-destructive, gigahertz ultrasonics to rapidly screen irradiated steels for swelling resistance

Transient grating spectroscopy (TGS), a non-contact ultrasonic materials analysis technique, is proposed to rapidly and indirectly assess relative void swelling resistance of multiple structural materials. Statistically significant changes in the frequency of probed surface acoustic waves (SAWs) suggest that newly developed steels containing nanosized precipitates show higher resistance to void swelling when compared to their simpler, commercial analogues. The higher reduction in SAW frequency seen in the simpler steels, proportional to porosity, indicates more void formation which is directly validated by TEM examinations. This example illustrates the minimum set of targeted TGS studies required to quickly and inexpensively rank materials by relative void swelling resistance, and hence, accelerate materials development and characterization.

Water droplet motion under the influence of Surface Acoustic Waves (SAW)

The water droplet motion processes actuated by applying surface acoustic waves at various RF powers and frequencies were investigated by numerically modelling and compared with experiment. A three-dimensional computational model of a free water droplet streaming on the surface of the substrate have been developed using Finite Element Method (FEM) with Laminar Two-Phase Flow Moving Mesh approach for Navier–Stokes equations which were coupled with Convection Wave equation (CWE) module of the COMSOL Multiphysics. Water droplet motion speeds were experimentally measured and confirmed for water droplets with the volumes of 2 and 5 μl, at SAW frequencies 34 and 58 MHz, and power range 0.1–1.23 W. The effect of frequency on microfluidic performance such as streaming flows and droplet motion has been studied both numerically and experimentally toward developing MEMS devices for future energy sources, e.g., for direct methanol fuel cells, hydrogen energy, as well as for use in a wide variety of chemical, water desalination and purification of other fluids from salts, germs, bacteria, and viruses based on perspective multiphysical effects.