Supportive Relationships Research Articles

Belongingness matters: A qualitative exploration of peer acceptance and rejection among high school students

Peer acceptance and rejection among high school students profoundly influence their emotional and social development, underscoring the necessity for comprehensive research in this domain. This qualitative study explores the experiences and perspectives of 20 high school students on peer acceptance and rejection. Utilizing a phenomenological design, the research was conducted in a private school in Cebu through in-depth interviews. The thematic analysis revealed that students highly value positive and supportive peer relationships, which enhance their sense of belonging and self-worth. Conversely, experiences of peer rejection and negative interactions were linked to feelings of loneliness, low self-esteem, and anxiety about losing social acceptance. Participants often went to great lengths to avoid rejection and maintain their social status, significantly impacting their mental health. Coping strategies reported included distraction, self-soothing, self-care, and engaging in creative activities. The findings suggest that educators and policymakers should prioritize fostering healthy peer relationships by promoting tolerance and empathy. Creating a safe and supportive environment that encourages self-expression and open communication is crucial. These measures can help schools develop a more inclusive and supportive environment, contributing to the social, emotional, and academic well-being of students.

Teachers’ instructional support and students’ peer relationships in the classroom

ABSTRACT The study aimed to investigate the association between teachers’ instructional support and peer relationships among Norwegian students in grades 5–10 (ages 10–15). The mediating role of student engagement was investigated. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of student behaviour on peer relationships and whether these associations were mediated by instructional support. The quality of instructional support was measured using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) observation protocol and student reports. Peer relationships were measured by self-report in the fall and the spring of an academic year. Student’s mental health problems and reactive aggressiveness were measured in the fall. The analyses were conducted within a Multilevel Structural Equation Models (MSEM) framework. The results indicated that peer relationships were stable from fall to spring at both the classroom and student levels. Observed, but not student-reported, instructional support was associated with peer relationships. Furthermore, when reactive aggressiveness and mental health problems were controlled for, students’ perceived instructional support in the fall was associated with peer relationships in the spring. The results emphasise the importance of teachers’ instructional support for the quality of peer relationships and affective and instructional aspects of teaching do not need to compete.

Poor Work Ability Is Associated with Workplace Violence in Nurses: A Two-Wave Panel Data Analysis.

Healthcare personnel must deal with two problems of growing importance: violence in the workplace and the loss of work ability due to the aging of the workforce. Our objective was to evaluate, with a two-wave perspective design, the relationships of work ability, social support, and occupational stress with workplace violence in nurses. In an Italian public health company, we asked nurses to self-assess their work ability using the Work Ability Index (WAI) and we analyzed the relationship between this indicator and the violence experienced in the previous and following years. A total of 321 out of 344 nurses (99.3%) participated. In a logistic regression model, the WAI score was a significant protective factor for violence experienced in the previous year (OR = 0.94 CI95% = 0.90; 0.98 p < 0.01) and in the following year (OR = 0.88 CI95% = 0.84; 0.92 p < 0.01). In a hierarchical logistic regression model, social support acted as a protective factor (OR = 0.87 CI95% = 0.79; 0.95 for violence experienced in the previous year), while occupational stress was a significant determinant of the risk of aggression (OR = 3.65 CI95% = 1.90; 7.03 in the previous year, OR = 3.54 CI95% = 1.801; 6.947 in the following year). The difficulties that nurses encounter in carrying out their growing work demands in an environment that is not promptly adapted to their changing physical and mental states can lead to an increased risk of violence. Prevention of workplace violence should include organizational and ergonomic measures that reduce stress and increase staff support and work ability.

Longitudinal associations between adolescents' social-emotional skills, school engagement, and school burnout

This longitudinal study investigated to what extent five key social-emotional skills persistence, academic buoyancy, curiosity, social engagement, and lack of loneliness were associated with adolescents' school engagement and burnout at two timepoints. Furthermore, the role of gender and socioeconomic status were examined. The data were collected from 1021 adolescents (ages 12–14) in the fall of 2021 and 2022. The results were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) and revealed that, in general, social-emotional skills were associated with higher school engagement and lower burnout among adolescents. Curiosity showed a strong relationship with school engagement. Moreover, persistence was associated with an increase in school engagement among adolescents with low-average socioeconomic status. High academic buoyancy and lack of loneliness were associated with decrease in burnout over the school years. The study implies that recognizing the variety of adolescent's social-emotional skills may help to better support adolescents' school engagement and protect them from burnout. Educational relevance and implications statementAccording to the study findings, social-emotional skills, such as persistence and curiosity, were associated with higher school motivation and lower burnout of adolescents. These results suggest that interventions aiming to develop adolescents' social-emotional skills may promote adolescents' motivation. Supporting adolescents' social relationships in school may also protect adolescents from burning out. To better support adolescent students' motivation and well-being at school it is important to recognize the diversity of individual adolescents' needs and strengths in social-emotional skills. Therefore, sufficient education and training would be needed for teachers concerning the variety of social-emotional skills.

A Multigroup Structural Equation Modeling Approach for Analyzing Differences Among Sexually Diverse Youth

ABSTRACT High rates of negative behavioral health outcomes among sexually diverse (SD) youth are consistently documented, but population-level trends obscure within-group differences. Social dynamics intersect in youths’ lives in ways that cannot be accounted for by summing their independent effects. An intersectional perspective is essential to understanding the behavioral health outcomes of SD youth. We performed multigroup structural equation modeling using an SD subset of New Mexico Youth Risk and Resiliency Survey (N = 10,037) respondents to examine the moderating role of supportive adult relationships for lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth across 12 intersecting (sexual orientation by race/ethnicity by sex) identity categories. Standardized estimates show that supportive relationships are associated with moderate reductions in psychological distress among lesbians (β = –0.459 for Native, β = –0.303 for Hispanic, and β = –0.421 for white) and female bisexual youth (β = –0.352 for Native, β = –0.376 for Hispanic, and β = –0.393 for white). Among male youth, supportive relationships are associated with reduced likelihood of substance use for gay (β = –0.330 for Native, β = –0.464 for Latinx and β = –0.591 for white) and bisexual youth (β = –0.442 for Native, β = –0.306 for Latinx and β = –0.290 for white). This study challenges monolithic characterizations of SD youth, illustrating that the health-promotive benefits of support differ based on sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, and sex.

Resilience in multicultural classrooms: School relationships can protect the school adjustment of immigrant, refugee and non-immigrant children.

According to the risk and resilience perspective, protective factors can attenuate the effect of risks and challenges on children's adjustment. For immigrant and refugee children, supportive relationships in the new context can be particularly beneficial. We expected that supportive school relationships play a protective role for the school adjustment of first-generation immigrant and refugee and non-immigrant children, by moderating the effect of one acculturative challenge (i.e., school language proficiency). We investigated the moderating roles of teacher-child and peer relationship quality on the association between German language proficiency and school adjustment (i.e., school achievement and belongingness) among first-generation immigrant and refugee and non-immigrant children. We recruited n = 278 fourth grade children (Mage = 10.47, SDage = .55, 53.24% female; 37% first-generation immigrant and refugee children). Questionnaires assessed children's reported teacher-child and peer relationship quality and school belongingness. One vocabulary test measured children's German proficiency. School achievement was assessed by their grade point average (GPA) and by a reading comprehension test. To investigate our hypotheses, we performed path analyses. Teacher-child relationship mitigated the effect of German proficiency on children's reading comprehension among all children and on GPA among immigrant and refugee children only. Peer relationship buffered the negative effect of German proficiency on school belongingness. Teacher-child and peer relationship quality can be beneficial for the school adjustment of both first-generation immigrant and refugee children and non-immigrant children.

The relationship between physical exercise and sense of social fairness among college students: the chain-mediated role of perceived social support and life satisfaction.

The development of a stable society is closely linked to a prevalent sense of social fairness. Participating in physical activities, which are inherently social, plays a crucial role in fostering mental stability within social contexts. This study aims to examine how physical exercise influences the sense of social fairness among college students, focusing on the potential mediating effects of perceived social support and life satisfaction. The study surveyed 496 Chinese college students using several scales: the Physical Activity Rating Scale-3 (PARS-3), Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and Social Justice Scale (SJS). (1) A positive correlation was found between physical exercise and sense of social fairness (r = 0.151, p < 0.01). A significant direct effect of physical exercise on sense of social fairness was also observed (β = 0.151, t = 3.971, p < 0.01). (2) Physical exercise was a positive predictor of perceived social support (β = 0.113, t = 4.062, p < 0.01), which in turn positively influenced both life satisfaction (β = 0.333, t = 18.047, p < 0.01) and sense of social fairness (β = 0.485, t = 6.931, p < 0.01). Additionally, life satisfaction had a positive effect on sense of social fairness (β = 0.431, t = 3.247, p < 0.01). (3) Both perceived social support and life satisfaction significantly mediated the relationship between physical exercise and sense of social fairness through two pathways: physical exercise → perceived social support → sense of social fairness (mediating effect: 0.055); and physical exercise → perceived social support → life satisfaction → sense of social fairness (mediating effect: 0.016). (1) Physical exercise enhances both perceived social support and the sense of social fairness among college students, suggesting that it not only directly contributes to an enhanced sense of social fairness but also fosters supportive social relationships. (2) The influence of physical exercise on the sense of social fairness operates both directly and indirectly through the mediating roles of perceived social support and, sequentially, life satisfaction.

Pastors as Partners in Care: African Immigrant Pastors' on Mental Health Care Referral Processes for Young Congregants Experiencing Symptoms of Psychosis in the US.

Early support for young people experiencing psychosis is key to preventing negative outcomes. First and second-generation Black immigrants to predominantly white countries are at higher risk for psychosis (Bourque et al. in Psychol Med 41(5):897-910, 2011) and novel interventions are needed to help support immigrants youths and families.African immigrant pastors are culturally valued and poised to help congregants with psychosis and their families, but we know little about the supports pastors offer and what kinds of tools they might need to address the needs of their congregants. This qualitative study explores semi-structured interviews with 16 primarily nondenominational, Christian, African immigrant pastors to elucidate how they served young adult congregants experiencing symptoms of psychosis and their families. Using grounded theory analytic methods, five key themes emerged: (1) building supportive relationships; (2) identifying the source; (3) healing the problem; (4) families as partners in care; and, (5) referring congregants to and collaborating with mental health professionals. These findings describe an initial set of care practices as a starting point for understanding the current and future role of African immigrant pastors as partners in providing mental health care.

The consequences of spousal infidelity for long-term chronic health: A two-wave longitudinal analysis

Objective: Research links low marital quality to poor mental and physical health, but the impact of spousal infidelity on long-term chronic health, especially using longitudinal data, is understudied. The present work investigates whether infidelity predicted long-term chronic health, and whether demographic factors and support or strain from friends or family moderated this relationship. Methods: Using longitudinal data from 2579 adults from the United States (1093 males, 1486 females; Mage = 57.17, Medianage = 56, SDage = 12.26, age range: 33–84 years), we examined associations between partner infidelity and chronic health conditions across two timepoints (T1: 2004–2006, T2: 2013–2014). We analyzed participants’ history of partner infidelity at T1 and its relationship with chronic health through mixed models as well as latent variable structural equation modelling. We also examined whether supportive relationships and demographic variables moderated these associations. Results: Controlling for demographic covariates (age, gender, education, ethnicity, employment, marital status, marital satisfaction and income level), infidelity was linked to poorer chronic health in mixed model analyses ( p &lt; .001), and this finding was also supported in latent variable analyses that controlled for baseline chronic health ( p = .003). Additionally, moderation analyses found that the impact of infidelity on chronic health was larger among low-income individuals and ethnic minorities. Conclusion: Partner infidelity has lasting detrimental associations with chronic health that are not mitigated by positive relationships. The research highlights the potential long-term health implications of partner infidelity and suggests the need for interventions to mitigate such negative effects.

Gender Identity and Its Influence on Social Support Networks among LGBTQ+ youth in New Zealand

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyze the gender identity and its influence on social support networks among LGBTQ+ youth in New Zealand. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Research on gender identity and its influence on social support networks among LGBTQ+ youth in New Zealand highlights that individuals with diverse gender identities often face unique challenges in accessing and maintaining supportive relationships. Findings indicate that LGBTQ+ youth experience varying levels of support based on their gender identity, with those who identify as non-binary or transgender sometimes facing more barriers compared to their cisgender or gay/lesbian peers. Social support networks play a crucial role in providing emotional and practical assistance, but the quality and availability of these network Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Social identity theory, minority stress theory &amp; ecological systems theory may be used to anchor future studies on gender identity and its influence on social support networks among LGBTQ+ youth in New Zealand. Implement educational programs for families to foster understanding, acceptance, and support for transgender and non-binary youth. Advocate for and implement comprehensive anti-bullying and inclusivity policies in schools that protect LGBTQ+ students. Policies should mandate the creation of safe spaces and support groups within educational institutions.

Promoting the social in psychosocial recovery: Interviews with Australian National Disability Insurance Scheme participants

AbstractSocial connection is a central element in mental health recovery and has been found to have a significant impact on the health and well‐being of individuals. This study examines the experiences of social connectedness for people accessing NDIS support for psychosocial disability. Interviews were conducted with eight NDIS participants. The study's findings suggest that people with psychosocial disabilities experience limited social connections and small social worlds. While NDIS support relationships were seen as important facilitators in increasing social engagement, these relationships may also limit opportunities for participants to extend their social connections beyond these professional support contacts. The impacts of participants' illnesses were identified as major barriers to establishing social connections and further research is needed to identify effective interventions that reduce social isolation in this population. This study highlights the role the NDIS can play in supporting social connection and inclusion for participants. Further consideration regarding the role of NDIS support relationships and NDIS‐funded interventions in supporting the social connectedness of participants is needed.

The moderating effect of place attachment on visitors’ trust and support for recreational fees in national parks

The success of fee programs on public lands hinges on visitors' perceptions and reactions towards recreational fees, emphasizing the importance of understanding visitor dynamics in park management decisions. Using Indiana Dunes National Park in the U.S. as the study context, this study investigates the role of trust and place attachment in shaping visitors' support for national park entrance fees. Informed by social judgment theory, we hypothesize that place identity (socio-emotional attachment) will strengthen the relationship between trust and fee support, while place dependence (functional attachment) will weaken it. Our sample included 900 park visitors. The findings showed that as visitors’ place dependence increased, trust in the park agency became less critical in fee support. However, place identity did not significantly impact the trust-fee support relationship. These results underscore the importance of building trust and fostering place dependence among visitors to increase support for fee-related decisions by park managers. This study extends the environmental psychology literature and the recreation fee literature by furthering our understanding of the interplay among trust, place attachment, and fee support in the context of protected area management, providing insights for policymakers and park managers grappling with the contentious discourse surrounding park fees.

Long-Acting Injectable Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: A Qualitative Analysis of Patients’ Interpersonal Relationships during the First Year of Treatment

Introduction: Long-acting injectable buprenorphine (LAIB) is a new treatment for opioid use disorder. Drawing upon new materialism and the concept of social capital, this article provides a focused analysis of how LAIB affects, and is affected by, patients’ relationships with other people. Methods: Data derive from a longitudinal qualitative study. Twenty-six people (18 males; 8 females) initiating LAIB were recruited from England and Wales (2020/2021) and interviewed up to six times each over a year (125 interviews in total). Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and coded. Coded relationship data were summarized in Excel and analyzed via Iterative Categorization. Results: Core significant others who did not use substances offered participants important support with LAIB. Children and grandchildren provided motivation for LAIB, whilst other family relationships could be supportive and unsupportive. Participants wanted to avoid friends, peers and associates who might offer them substances, but valued sharing experiences with others in similar circumstances. Whilst some participants were unconcerned when treatment staff did not contact them, others were angry and upset. Those who did not continue LAIB or were lost from the study were more isolated at recruitment. Meanwhile, participants who remained on LAIB described increased sociability over time. Conclusions: Findings are consistent with ideas relating to new materialism (LAIB is part of an interacting network of material and non-material factors) and social capital (those with supportive relationships benefited more from LAIB). Interpersonal relationships need to be considered as part of routine care and should be reviewed with patients throughout the treatment journey.

Evaluating factors affecting sexual abuse prevention education for primary school students according to the life skills approach

This comprehensive study delves into the intricate factors influencing sexual abuse prevention education for elementary school students, capturing insights from diverse stakeholders, including 423 students, 115 teachers, and 423 parents. Employing a Likert scale, the research evaluates various dimensions, shedding light on the nuanced dynamics that shape prevention programs. The results reveal that student-related factors, encompassing positive behavior, cognitive capacity, personality traits, and knowledge levels, received moderately positive mean scores. This underscores the significant contribution of inherent qualities and cognitive abilities of primary school students to the effectiveness of sexual abuse prevention education. Moving to family-related factors, parents’ extensive knowledge and understanding garnered a positive mean score of 2.91, signifying a favorable impact, while financial considerations received a slightly lower mean score of 2.92. Notably, parental educational methods and the inclination to delegate educational responsibilities to schools scored higher at 2.99 each, underscoring the influential role parents play in shaping their children's perspectives on sexual abuse prevention. Within the school environment, positive interactions between teachers and students stood out with a mean score of 2.97, emphasizing the pivotal role of supportive teacher-student relationships in facilitating effective sexual abuse prevention education. Societal factors exhibited varying influences, with local customs, culture, and social psychology receiving a mean score of 2.91, indicating a moderately positive impact. However, the development of the internet and information channels scored lower at 2.60, revealing potential challenges in adapting prevention education to the evolving landscape of online information dissemination. These nuanced findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the multifaceted factors shaping sexual abuse prevention education for elementary school students, providing a foundation for evidence-based interventions and policy decisions.

Cultivating Therapeutic Presence: A Pilot Project.

Purpose: Cultivating therapeutic presence is a pilot project for addressing perceived stress in a group of holistic healthcare workers. Design and Methods: The project incorporated mindfulness-based interventions, self-care techniques, and the establishment of supportive relationships. It was presented during the COVID pandemic to integrative health care workers at a children's hospital. Findings: There was an overall improvement in perceived stress scores across the series, with an effect size estimated by Cohen's d = .963, consistent with a large effect. Participants reported persistent effects on a survey administered five months after completion of the project, which included feeling more confident, using the techniques, and more effectively caring for themselves. Conclusions: This project integrated mindfulness-based interventions with self-care techniques, as well as strengthening support networks. Upon completion, perceived stress decreased, a finding that persisted for several months.

“Helping Me Get Through the Day”: The Importance of Social Contact and Support for Incarcerated Young People During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: There is limited knowledge about how incarcerated young people have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. An improved understanding of the impact of pandemic circumstances could help to advance a multitude of practices and policies, including those that strengthen personal relationships. Objectives: This study aimed to (a) describe self-reported perceptions that social contact and support for incarcerated young people are powerful protective factors with the potential to attenuate the negative impacts of incarceration, (b) explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their personal and relational well-being, (c) determine the extent to which the pandemic restricted access to social support and other resources, and (d) consider potential identity-related differences in these perceptions and impacts. Methods: This exploratory study employed interpretative phenomenological analysis (Smith et al., 2010) of semi-structured interviews with 30 incarcerated youth in an adult correctional setting, ages 16-21 years, in addition to some preliminary information about social contact and multidimensional social support. Results: Significant benefits of family support were identified, such as moral guidance, hopefulness, and goal maintenance, as well as the necessity of relationships for youth well-being given the especially challenging circumstances created by the pandemic. Limitations and barriers to social support, as well as access to services, were identified that may have implications for programmatic and system-level changes. Conclusion: Contact with and involvement in supportive relationships is important for incarcerated young people, perhaps especially so during times of crisis. Specific implications for both forensic social work practice, such as family-focused advocacy and services, and further qualitative social work research, including with incarcerated young people, are further explored.

“The Comparison Trap”: The Role of Perceived Parent Social Comparison on Adolescent Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Self-Handicapping

Parents' attitudes and behavior can impact children's self-esteem, self-perceptions, and behavior. However, limited studies have investigated the relationship between parent social comparison and adolescents’ academic self-appraisal and academic behavior. To address this gap, a survey was conducted among 200 Senior High School students from the Integrated School of De La Salle University - Manila to determine the types of perceived parent social comparison (PPSC) experienced (upward identification, upward contrast, downward identification, downward contrast) and their relationship to academic self-efficacy (ASE) and academic self-handicapping (ASH). Results revealed that adolescents have a moderate level of PPSC, with upward identification obtaining the highest mean score. No significant differences were found between males and females. However, significant differences between adolescents compared by parents to others sometimes and those compared often/always were observed in the overall PPSC, downward identification comparison, and upward contrast comparison. After controlling for sex and frequency of PPSC, forward multiple regression revealed that downward contrast was the only significant negative correlate of ASE. In contrast, downward identification was the only significant positive correlate of ASH. The study suggests that cultivating a positive and supportive parent-adolescent relationship rather than a culture of comparison may lead to better outcomes for adolescents.

Doctoral program support impacts student educational experience: examining the virtual holding environment across DSW cohorts

ABSTRACT In this exploratory mixed-methods study, we applied Fletcher, Davis Comer, and Dunlap’s conceptual framework of Virtual Holding Environments (VHEs), spaces where supportive relationships can be developed and maintained using technology over time. We investigated the role of VHEs in enhancing educational experiences among doctoral students who completed their degrees primarily (or fully) online. Using survey data collected over the spring/summer of 2019, we examined Doctorate in Social Work (DSW) students’ (n = 34) experiences of VHEs in a Midwestern university in the United States as they began, worked toward, and completed their doctoral degrees. Qualitative findings included themes such as togetherness and connectedness, importance, and relevance, and quantitative descriptive analysis of responses to Likert-scale questions portrayed doctoral students’ experiences of the VHEs. Recommendations for social work online and hybrid educational programs are to consider implementation of VHEs during orientation programs, to focus developmental processes on embracing differences among cohort members, and to adjust the delivery of curricula to meet the current needs of students.

Patient perspective on adapting to bowel dysfunction after rectal cancer surgery.

Bowel dysfunction continues to be a clinically significant consequence of rectal cancer surgery, affecting quality of life. Rectal cancer patients value self-empowerment and adaptation to change to improve their quality of life in the context of bowel dysfunction. There are limited qualitative data addressing patients' perspectives on adapting to bowel dysfunction. The aim of this study is to evaluate patients' perspectives on adapting to bowel dysfunction after rectal cancer surgery. Adult patients who underwent rectal cancer surgery with sphincter preservation at a single colorectal referral centre from July 2017 to July 2020 were included. Patients were excluded if they had surgery <1 year since recruitment, received a permanent stoma or developed recurrence or metastasis. Semistructured interviews were held by phone and transcribed verbatim. Bowel dysfunction was assessed via the low anterior resection syndrome (LARS) score. Thematic analysis was used to identify adaptations which patients found helpful for improving bowel dysfunction after rectal cancer surgery. A total of 54 patient interviews were included. The distribution of patients with no, minor and major LARS was 39%, 22% and 39%, respectively. Four main themes were conceived from the analysis: implementing lifestyle changes, fostering supportive relationships and self-compassion, communication and access to resources, and adapting to social and cultural challenges. Associated subthemes were identified, namely forward planning, self-compassion and addressing social stigma. Patients' valuable perspective on adapting to bowel dysfunction involve subtle themes which expand the existing literature. These themes inform a patient-centred approach, which may improve outcomes and quality of care for rectal cancer patients.

Are spatial terms rooted in geometry or force-dynamics? Yes.

Theories of spatial term meanings often focus on geometric properties of objects and locations as the key to understanding meaning. For example, in English, "The cat is on the mat" might engage geometric properties characterizing the figure ('cat', a point) and the ground ('mat', a plane) as well as the geometric relationship between the two objects ('on', + vertical, 0 distance from ground object). However, substantial literature suggests that geometric properties are far from sufficient to capture the meanings of many spatial expressions, and that instead, force-dynamic properties of objects that afford containment or support relationships may be crucial to the meanings of those expressions. I will argue that both approaches are needed to understand the variety of spatial terms that appear in language and further, that spatial terms fall into two distinct sets, one represented by geometric properties of figure and ground and their spatial relationships, and the other by the force-dynamic properties of objects and their relationships. This division of labor within spatial terms has many consequences, with the two types differing in the nature of the acquisition problem and likely learning mechanisms, the extent and kind of cross-linguistic variation that has been observed, and the application of pragmatic principles to spatial terms. Speculatively, the two types may also be rooted in different cognitive systems and their neural substrates.