Supporting Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Diversity and Diversification: Ecosystem Services Derived From Underutilized Crops and Their Co-benefits for Sustainable Agricultural Landscapes and Resilient Food Systems in Africa.

There are growing calls to adopt more sustainable forms of agriculture that balance the need to increase production with environmental, human health, and wellbeing concerns. Part of this conversation has included a debate on promoting and mainstreaming neglected and underutilized crop species (NUS) because they represent a more ecologically friendly type of agriculture. We conducted a systematic review to determine the ecosystem services derived from NUS and assess their potential to promote functional ecological diversity, food and nutritional security, and transition to more equitable, inclusive, sustainable and resilient agricultural landscapes and food systems in Africa. Our literature search yielded 35 articles for further analysis. The review showed that NUS provide various provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting ecosystem services and several environmental and health co-benefits, dietary diversity, income, sustainable livelihood outcomes, and economic empowerment, especially for women. Importantly, NUS address the three pillars of sustainable development-ecological, social, and economic. Thus, NUS may provide a sustainable, fit-for-purpose transformative ecosystem-based adaptation solution for Africa to transition to more sustainable, healthy, equitable, and resilient agricultural landscapes and food systems.

Organic amendments increase the flow uniformity of energy across nematode food webs

Energy dynamics within ecological communities are important in delivering ecosystem services. However, it remains elusive how the energy fluxes within soil food webs respond to agricultural fertilization regimes. Here, we studied the effects of long-term organic amendments and mineral fertilizers on the energetic structure of soil nematodes from a food-web perspective. We replicated our experiment in a rice paddy and in an upland maize cropping system. Results showed that the abundance of most trophic groups was higher in organically amended soils compared with mineral fertilizer treatments in both systems. Organic amendments, but not mineral fertilizers, increased the energy flux of total nematodes and most trophic groups compared with the no-fertilizer treatment. Furthermore, organic amendments increased the relative allocation of energy flux to microbivores but decreased the relative allocation to herbivores, supporting a higher flow uniformity than mineral fertilizers. We further found that organic amendments favored a higher total energy flux by supporting a greater nematode diversity, while sustained a higher flow uniformity by altering nematode community composition. Taken together, the result provides the evidence that a complex and species-rich community could transfer more energy to support ecosystem services. A broader perspective on linkages of biodiversity and energy dynamics spanning multitrophic groups is crucial for sustainable management, particularly in the light of non-random species loss under future environmental change.

Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Environmental Degradation by Using Landscape Approach in The Riparian Area of Lake Rawapening

Lake Rawapening is a unique landscape that naturally provides provisioning, regulatory, cultural, and supporting ecosystem services. On the other side, Rawapening Lake is an open access area that is subject to be vulnerable to any economic activities that lead to environmental degradation. This study aims to identify the spatial distribution of ecosystem services provided in part of the riparian area of Rawapening Lake using a geomorphological approach with detailed scale mapping and identify environmental degradation that occurred in the area in two time periods, 2016 and 2020. Data analysis was carried out using Scoring and Pairwise Comparison techniques to produce Ecosystem Services Index and Ecosystem Services Composite Index values presented in a Spatio-temporal manner. The results of the analysis using the Geographic Information System (GIS) show that the dynamics of the landscape that occurred in 2016 and 2020 caused changes in the provision of ecosystem services in terms of the area. In these two periods, the Landscape Lake Rawapening had the highest Ecosystem Services Composite Index(IKJE). However, the threat of environmental degradation caused by anthropogenic activities is always lurking and can lead to a decrease in the quality and quantity of the provision of ecosystem services from the landscape. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a study on the physical and socio-economic characteristics of the study area to assist policymakers in formulating the determination of lake riparian area and zoning of related resource use.

Planning, Designing, and Managing Green Roofs and Green Walls for Public Health – An Ecosystem Services Approach

Installing green roofs and green walls in urban areas is suggested to supply multiple ecosystem services of benefit to human health and well-being. In a three-step literature review, we examined current knowledge on the link between public health and green roofs and green walls. A systematic search identified 69 scientific articles on green roofs/walls with a public health discourse. These articles were categorized according to type of health path covered (reduction of temperature, air pollution, noise or environmental appraisal) and coverage of issues of relevance for strategies on planning, design/construction, and maintenance of green roofs and green walls. Articles identified through the structured search were complemented with reviews (with no explicit public health rationale) covering reduction of noise, temperature, or air pollution and environmental appraisal. Other relevant studies were identified through snowballing. Several of the articles provided guidelines for optimizing the effect of green roofs/walls in supporting ecosystem services and maximizing well-being benefits to support health pathways identified. These included specifications about planning issues, with recommended spatial allocation (locations where people live, sun-exposed for maximum ambient temperature reduction) and with physical access needed for environmental appraisal. Recommendations regarding design parameters covered substrate depth (deeper generally being better), plant choices (more diverse roofs providing more services), and maintenance issues (moist substrate positively correlated with heat reduction).

Place-based social-ecological research is crucial for designing collective management of ecosystem services

Agricultural intensification tends to maximize provisioning services at the expense of regulating, cultural and supporting ecosystem services (ES). Enhancing agroecosystem sustainability requires both individual and collective solutions, but these are particularly difficult to design and implement since knowledge is lacking and ES may be considered either as private, common or public goods. This study focuses on the role that research can play in such complex design processes. It draws on the reflexive analysis of a place-based and long-term research programme conducted in a Long-Term Social-Ecological Research (LTSER) infrastructure, the Zone Atelier Plaine & Val de Sèvre (western France). In this programme, researchers explored several pathways of collaboration with local stakeholders to both produce knowledge and design solutions for sustainable ES management. Four major steps in the research programme are highlighted: (i) a centralized landscape management strategy to reconcile agricultural production and biodiversity; (ii) a participatory design approach to design sustainable agroecosystems; (iii) the implementation of social-ecological experiments on farms to reduce the use of chemical inputs; and (iv) a multifaceted intervention research project to involve a diversity of stakeholders in designing sustainable agrifood systems. For each of these steps, we describe the targeted issues, the ES at stake, the scientific concepts, theories and protocols used, and the design processes and types of interactions developed with stakeholders. We draw lessons from each step, underlining the achievements and difficulties. The paper concludes with insights on the role that researchers can play to foster the collective design of a social-ecological system delivering multiple ES.

The use of multisource spatial data for determining the proliferation of stingless bees in Kenya

ABSTRACT Stingless/meliponine bees are eusocial insects whose polylactic nature enables interaction with a wide variety of wild plants and crops that enhance pollination and, hence, support ecosystem services. However, their true potential regarding pollination services and honey production is yet to be fully recognized. Worldwide, there are over 800 species of meliponine bees, with over 20 species documented on the African continent. Out of these, only 12 species have been well documented in Kenya. Moreover, interest on meliponine bees has increased amid climate change, agricultural intensification, and other anthropogenic effects. Generally, stingless bees are under-researched, with no previous documented evidence of their ecological niche (EN) distribution in most African countries. Hence, this study sought to establish the influence of bioclimatic, topographic, and vegetation phenology on their spatial distribution and change patterns. Stingless response variables from 490 sample points were collected and used in conjunction with 11 non-conflating features to build stingless ecological niche models. Six machine learning-based EN models were used to predict the distribution of seven stingless bees’ species combined. The results from the EN models showed that annual precipitation was the most influential variable to stingless bee distribution (contributing 43.09% logit), while potential evapotranspiration and temperature seasonality contributed 21.18% of the information needed to predict the spatial distribution of stingless bees. Vegetation phenology (21.36%) and topography (14.36%) had moderate effect on stingless bees’ distribution. On the other hand, high seasonality in precipitation and temperature indicated high stingless niche variability in the future (i.e. 2055). The performance of six EN algorithms used to predict distribution of stingless bees was found to be “excellent” for random forest (true skills statistics (TSS) = 0.91) and ranger (TSS = 0.90) and “good” for generalized additive models (TSS = 0.87), multivariate adaptive regression spline (TSS = 0.80), and boosted regression trees (TSS = 0.80), while they were “fair” for recursive portioning and regression trees (TSS = 0.79). These EN models could be utilized to inform stingless bee farming and insects pollinated crops by highlighting regions that provide highly suitable conditions for stingless bees. Additionally, the findings could be harnessed to increase both bee and agricultural productivity and forest conservation efforts through supplementary pollination services.

Unraveling the genetic components of perenniality: Toward breeding for perennial grains

Social Impact StatementAlthough tremendously successful at feeding humanity, row crop agriculture based on annuals contributes to numerous ecosystem dis‐services, ranging from soil degradation and aquatic eutrophication to greenhouse gas production. In contrast, perennial grain crops (which produce harvests for multiple seasons from single plantings) have the potential to provide valuable regulating and supporting ecosystem services in addition to food production. In particular, losses of ecological capital that threaten permanent food insecurity such as ~1% of global soil per year are expected to be mitigated or even reversed by crops that combine the high yield realized by scientific breeding via multiple cropping cycles from single plantings.Summary Perennial herbaceous may provide food and biomass while preserving ecological capital and reducing energy inputs. Sorghum has two perennial relatives and rich morphological diversity being used to breed for perenniality. We elucidate genetic determinants of rhizomatousness and survival, in two BC1F2 populations totaling 246 genotypes derived from backcrossing different annual Sorghum bicolor X perennial S. halepense F1 plants to a tetraploidized S. bicolor. RNA‐seq assisted in identifying candidate genes for rhizomatousness. Correspondence of rhizomatousness quantitative trait loci (QTLs) with those from two populations derived from crosses between S. halepense progenitors S. bicolor X S. propinquum suggests either the preservation of interspecific polymorphism or the formation of novel alleles following polyploid S. halepense formation. Correspondence of tillering and branching QTLs further supports their developmental. Identification of genes from RNA‐seq study within QTL intervals provides insight toward discovery of causal rhizomatous genes. An unexpected finding from both S. halepense‐ and S. propinquum‐derived populations is that alleles contributing to late flowering are related to reduced rhizomatousness. Twelve of 16 QTL regions conferring rhizomatousness fall in paleo‐duplicated regions tracing to single ancestral regions 96 million years ago, indicating that corresponding genes in these regions have retained similar functions since the duplication event.

Are silvicultural subsidies an effective payment for ecosystem services in Slovakia?

The Slovak government sought a solution to motivate forest owners to improve silvicultural measures and use close-to-nature forest management because it believes it would support all forest ecosystem services. For this reason, a new economic instrument, “Forestry Support for Fulfilling Non-productive Forest Functions” (FSfNPFF), has been recently implemented. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the economic instrument. We used a multicriteria programme evaluation method to (i) analyse this national subsidy for silvicultural measures and close-to-nature forestry as payments for ecosystem services, (ii) evaluate the potential effectiveness of the subsidy and (iii) evaluate the implementation effectiveness in achieving both ecological and policy goals. Characteristics of the FSfNPFF programme partly overlap with the theory of payments for ecosystem services, which concludes that it could be an input-oriented payment or other incentives for ecosystem services. However, as our results revealed, relevant implementation gaps occurred that reduced the overall effectiveness of the FSfNPFF programme, and there is no evidence of how these subsidies support ecosystem services in terms of their quantification.

Revisiting the Green City Concept in the Tropical and Global South Cities Context: The Case of Indonesia

Urban areas play a key role in reaching global sustainability as they produce a high amount of waste and emissions, consume a lot of resources, and perform as the prime mover of the global economy. Unsustainable urbanization will generate multidimensional impacts on the earth’s socio-ecological system that is nearly impossible to be managed. As a preemptive action, urban sustainability has been considered as one of the most important targets in the Sustainable Development Goals. Within this context, the green city has emerged as a widely adopted concept around the globe. In the Global North, the concept of a green city has been incrementally developed as efforts to mainstream green infrastructure and nature-based solutions approaches in supporting ecosystem services. Quite the contrary, in the Global South cities, due to their rapid and vast urbanization process, the green city has been fragmentally adopted. Previous studies have proposed three factors, i.e., urbanization, biophysics, and governance, underlying the different approaches of green city development between cities in the Global North and South. Still, more studies are needed to explicate these factors and how these will in turn shape a particular green city trajectory in Global South cities. This study aims to respond to these questions based on green city experimentation in Indonesia. An exploratory study was done based on a literature review and participant observation. The results exhibit that the green city program in Indonesia largely focused on the development of green open spaces which has ultimately failed to improve the urban environment and sustainability. Incorporating local socio-ecological aspects coupled with integrated multi-level and multi-actors’ governance is recommended to increase the green city performances.

Spatial targets and payment modes of win–win payments for ecosystem services and poverty reduction

Spatial targets and payment modes are the key components for solving the issue of “where to pay and how to pay” and for supporting ecosystem service providers to achieve sustainable livelihoods and end poverty through payments for ecosystem services (PES) for environmental protection and poverty reduction. Here, we present the Spatial Targets and Sustainable Livelihoods (STSL) framework and analyze regional environmental vulnerability and livelihood assets in the Longnan Municipality of China. We constructed reasonable spatial targeting and payment modes according to each actual type. We classified the present 27 poverty-stricken areas in Longnan Municipality into two levels of environmental vulnerability, four classes in combination with natural capital, eight categories with the addition of human capital, and ten subcategories considering environmental vulnerability and all five livelihood assets. Finally, considering regional development and sustainable livelihoods for poor people, we suggest spatial layout targets for implementing conservation or restoration ecological projects and 10 differentiated payment modes. This study provides an appropriate proposal for certain regions to implement the environmental policy of win–win PES and fills the research gap regarding specific payment modes for PES.

Kelp detritus: Unutilized productivity or an unacknowledged trophic resource?

Kelp beds are one of the most productive marine systems and, while little of this production is directly consumed, there is growing evidence that kelp detritus is an essential food source for many detrital and suspension feeders, and forms an important component of offshore sedimentary carbon pools. However, the extent of the contribution of kelp detritus to the nutrition of coastal fauna is not well resolved. In this study, we compare the contribution of phytoplankton, kelp detritus, and waste from fish cages to the diet of a sentinel suspension feeder, the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) using stable isotopes. We found a significant depletion in both 13C and 15N in kelp tissue with age (distance from stipe to the deteriorating distal end of the kelp frond) which may have biased dietary estimates in previous studies which have applied isotopic source values derived from fresh kelp. Our mixing models indicate that macroalgal detritus formed 59% of the diet of the mussels in Berehaven, Bantry Bay, Ireland. We support the isotopic mixing model results by modelling the relative production of phytoplankton, kelp, and salmon farm waste, and found the supply of C and N from kelp and phytoplankton far exceeded the requirements of the mussels with much less coming from the nearby fish cages. Monthly chlorophyll measurements indicated there was only sufficient phytoplankton density to support mussel growth during the spring and autumn, explaining our observation of patterns in the relative importance of utilization of kelp detritus. Where there is pressure to harvest kelp beds, this study highlights the supporting ecosystem service they provide as an important dietary source in coastal food webs and emphasises the need for appropriate management measures for this resource.

Restoring Natural Forests as the Most Efficient Way to Water Quality and Abundance: Case Study from Želivka River Basin

This article shows how to restore Central European natural capital effectively. Water in the landscape is primarily sustained by vegetation and soil, most effectively by natural forests and only secondarily by artificial reservoirs. The authors document these facts using a case study from the Želivka River basin (Švihov reservoir), which collects surface water for the metropolitan region of Prague and Central Bohemia. With the Energy-Water-Vegetation Method, the authors demonstrate that the cultural human-changed landscape of the Želivka river basin is able to utilize only about 60% of its solar energy potential. In 1.5% of the territory of the Czech Republic, society annually loses supporting ecosystem services at a level higher than 25% of the annual GDP of the CR 2015. Water retention in the landscape needs to be re-evaluated and addressed in accordance with the thermodynamic principles of life and ecosystem functioning in the biosphere. It is necessary to begin restoring the most efficient natural capital in the landscapes and to return the broad-leaved deciduous forests by intelligent forestation methods to the cultural landscape to the extent justified; this is especially true of the Želivka River basin, which is Czechia’s biggest surface drinking-water collecting area.

Utilizing Ecosystem Function Multifunctionality to Assess Supporting Ecosystem Services of Three Land-Use Types in Northwestern Virginia

Utilizing Ecosystem Function Multifunctionality to Assess Supporting Ecosystem Services of Three Land-Use Types in Northwestern Virginia

Woody species and supporting ecosystem services: the case study of the city of Turin (Italy)

Woody species and supporting ecosystem services: the case study of the city of Turin (Italy)

Diversity of small terrestrial mammals under different organic farming management in Mediterranean and Continental agriculture ecosystems

Diversity of small terrestrial mammals under different organic farming management in Mediterranean and Continental agriculture ecosystems

Engaging students in redesigning a local urban space to improve ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are an important, but often invisible component of the urban landscape. Humans have altered the environment in cities, leading to degraded or missing ecosystem services in many cases. To enhance or replace these services, many urban municipalities are integrating green spaces and infrastructure into urban planning. We have designed an activity to help undergraduate students: 1) recognize the importance of urban ecosystem services, 2) identify when they are degraded or missing, and 3) integrate “green” ideas from multiple sources to propose improvements to them. To help students achieve these goals, we asked them to evaluate an underutilized space on their own campus, and propose a redesign of that space to support ecosystem services. While many students struggled initially to link urban ecosystem services with specific proposed improvements, we found that having students work together in groups for a second redesign often improved understanding and also resulted in more creative and interdisciplinary designs. The exercise also helped students to better identify ecosystem services and allowed them to practice integrating multiple viewpoints while proposing solutions to local environmental problems.

Hydrologic connectivity and land cover affect floodplain lake water quality, fish abundance, and fish diversity in floodplain lakes of the Wabash‐White River basin

AbstractFloodplain lakes are important aquatic resources for supporting ecosystem services, such as organismal habitat, biodiversity, and the retention of nutrients and sediment. Due to geomorphic alteration of river channels and land‐cover change, degradation to floodplain lakes in the Ohio River basin is occurring at a rate that will escalate as climate change causes increased flood intensity and the seasonal redistribution of rainfall. A better understanding of the local drivers that affect oxbow lakes is needed for targeted floodplain restoration efforts designed to slow degradation. We examined the effects of land cover, topography, and hydrologic connectivity on water quality and fish diversity and abundance in nine floodplain lakes with potentially high remnant ecological function in the Wabash‐White watershed (Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois). Data collection included water‐quality parameters; stable water isotopes; total phosphorus, total nitrogen, and chlorophyll‐a; and fish community diversity and abundance. Results indicate that hay/pasture land cover and decreased topographic relief in the local oxbow watersheds, along with reduced river hydrologic connectivity, were related to an increase in total phosphorus, total nitrogen, and chlorophyll‐a. Greater biodiversity and abundance in fish assemblages were evident in oxbow lakes that were more disconnected from the main channel. The results of this study suggest that hydrologic connectivity of oxbow lakes with the contributing drainage area and the main channel influence nutrients and fish communities. Knowing the influencing factors can help ecosystem managers better protect these valuable floodplain lake ecosystems and prioritize restoration efforts amidst increasing stressors due to climate and land‐use changes.

Preface

It is a great honor for us, Faculty of Forestry of Hasanuddin University, to host the 2nd Biennial Conference of Tropical Biodiversity 2021 (BCTB) 2021 on August 4th - 5th, 2021, in Makassar City of South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. This conference is a series of international scientific seminars held by the Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia, held biennially since 2018. In addition, The proceedings of BCTB have been published in the IOP conference series: Earth and Environmental Science (EES).Biodiversity is evenly distributed and varies widely across the world and within regions, the diversity of which is highly dependent on environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, altitude, soil geography, and the presence of other species. Biodiversity is also essential in supporting ecosystem services, including air quality, climate, carbon dioxide absorption, water purification, pollination, and erosion prevention. Rapid environmental changes have led to many mass extinctions of species. Therefore, protecting its existence has become one of the most significant challenges humanity has to face.The Biennial Conference of Tropical Biodiversity is a scientific forum to enhance science and technology, together with researchers, scientists, practitioners, and scholars to anticipate the impacts of climate change in biodiversity. This is also conducted to promote Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Hence, this conference chose an SDGs-related theme, namely “Managing Challenges in Biodiversity Conservation During The Pandemic to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals for Better Environment” with six sub-themes:1. Assessment of global biodiversity: the impact of a pandemic to biodiversity.2. The existence of genetic diversity to maintain biodiversity.3. Community partnership for biodiversity conservation.4. Biodiversity and utilization.5. The conservation of tropical biodiversity: current challenges for the management.6. Ecological risk and natural disaster.The Biennial Conference of Tropical Biodiversity will be held every two years. The first was in 2018, and the second should be in 2019. Due to the Covid-19 outbreak, the conference was postponed to be this year (2021). Hence, the conference model has performed with a virtual conference instead of a live meeting.This conference presents keynote speakers from 5 countries, namely Prof. Enrico Bonello from Ohio State University, USA, Dr. Doan Nainggolan from Aarhus University-Denmark, Prof. Erin P. Riley from San Diego State University-USA, Dr. Ida Ayu Pradnya Resosudarmo from Australian National University-Australia, and Prof. Supratman from Hasanuddin University-Indonesia. The plenary session and discussion for all speakers were for 3 hours. Participant presentations (oral and video presentations) were held in 3 sessions, and each session was divided into ten rooms. The number of participants per room was 15-20 participants with an allocation of presentations for 5 minutes/participant conducted in parallel as many as three parallel sessions. Discussions sessions were held in parallel in each parallel session with an allocation of 3 minutes per participant. The Virtual BCTB conference implementation applied the zoom meeting application provided by the Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Hasanuddin.List of Conference Committee & Reviewer BCTB 2021 are available in this pdf.

Optimizing invasive species management using mathematical programming to support stewardship of water and carbon-based ecosystem services

Invasive species alter hydrologic processes at watershed scales, with impacts to biodiversity and the supporting ecosystem services. This effect is aggravated by climate change. Here, we integrated modelled hydrologic data, remote sensing products, climate data, and linear mixed integer optimization (MIP) to identify stewardship actions across space and time that can reduce the impact of invasive species. The study area is the windward coast of Hawai'i Island (USA) across which non-native strawberry guava occurrence varies from extremely dense stands in lower watershed reaches, to low densities in upper watershed forests. We focused on the removal of strawberry guava, an invader that exerts significant impacts on watershed condition. MIP analyses spatially optimized the assignment of effective management actions to increase water yield, generate revenue from enhanced freshwater services, and income from removed biomass. The hydrological benefit of removing guava, often marginal when considered in isolation, was financially quantified, and single- and multiobjective MIP formulations were then developed over a 10-year planning horizon. Optimization resulted in $2.27 million USD benefit over the planning horizon using a payment-for-ecosystem-services scheme. That value jumped to $4.67 million when allowing work schedules with overnight camping to reduce costs. Pareto frontiers of weighted pairs of management goals showed the benefit of clustering treatments over space and time to improve financial efficiency. Values of improved land-water natural capital using payment-for-ecosystem-services schemes are provided for several combinations of spatial, temporal, economical, and ecosystem services flows.

Sustainability of Village Tank Cascade Systems of Sri Lanka: Exploring Cascade Anatomy and Socio-Ecological Nexus for Ecological Restoration Planning

Village Tank Cascade Systems (VTCSs) in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka have evolved as sustainable ecosystems through human interventions to ensure water availability and other services for people and their environs during the last few millennia. However, VTCSs are vulnerable to global environmental changes resulting in continual deterioration of ecological health and hydro-socio-ecological status, crucial for the food and livelihood security of rural farming communities in the dry zone. This paper seeks to explore resource systems of the Mahakanumulla VTCS located in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka to (i) identify the spatial metrics linked to the sustainability and socio-ecological resilience of the VTCS, and (ii) determine interactions among system elements and their impacts on productivity and restoration challenges. The spatial analysis was conducted using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM), recent digital topographic map layers and Google Earth images to understand the spatial distribution and ensemble of tank environs. Participatory field assessment data were also used to determine socio-ecological nexus and factors that contribute to the reduction of ecological productivity of VTCS. The study revealed that the ensemble of tank environs is significant for providing regulatory and supporting ecosystem services (ES) and synergistic relationships with provisional ES of the VTCS. Results also revealed that the complex land-water-biodiversity-climate and food nexus that determines the productivity of the VTCS could be adopted in VTCS ecological restoration planning. The study presents a comprehensive framework to analyse causal factors and processes leading to reduction of overall productivity linked with variables of socio-ecological properties, vulnerability and resilience of the VTCS landscape.