Irrigation Water Supply Research Articles

Optimizing Water Footprint, Productivity, and Sustainability in Southern Italian Olive Groves: The Role of Organic Fertilizers and Irrigation Management

This modeling study evaluates the combined effects of organic fertilization and irrigation regimes on olive productivity and environmental sustainability in southern Italy. Field experiments were conducted in an organic olive grove (cv. Leccino) under Mediterranean conditions, testing four organic fertilization treatments—biochar (BCH), compost (CMP), dried blood (DB), and a commercial organic fertilizer (CTR)—and two irrigation strategies. The CropWat model was employed to simulate additional irrigation scenarios, ranging from full irrigation (Full; 100% ETc) to rainfed conditions. Results showed that biochar-treated olive groves achieved the highest yields (up to 3756 kg ha−1 under full irrigation), outperforming other treatments, with yields of 3191 kg ha−1 (CMP), 2590 kg ha−1 (DB), and 2110 kg ha−1 (CTR). Deficit irrigation strategies, such as ceasing irrigation during the pit-hardening stage (Red_Farm; 1160 m3 ha−1), reduced water use by 67% compared to Full (3600 m3 ha−1) while maintaining satisfactory yields (3070 kg ha−1 vs. 2035 kg ha−1 on average across all fertilization treatments). Water footprint (WFP) analysis revealed that BCH consistently achieved the lowest WFP values (e.g., 1220 m3 t−1 under Full and 687 m3 t−1 under rainfed conditions), outperforming CTR (1605 m3 t−1), CMP (1645 m3 t−1), and DB (1846 m3 t−1) under full irrigation and 810 m3 t−1, 1219 m3 t−1, and 1147 m3 t−1 with no irrigation water supply. Incremental water productivity (IRincr) and marginal water footprint efficiency (WFPincr) further demonstrated that BCH optimized both productivity and environmental sustainability, with IRincr values of 0.55 kg m−3 and WFPincr values of 1.58 m3 kg−1 (averaged for all water regimes), better than CTR (0.40 kg m−3 and 2.14 m3 kg−1), CMP (0.46 kg m−3 and 1.93 m3 kg−1), and DB (0.38 kg m−3 and 2.32 m3 kg−1). An aggregated scoring system, based on standardized and normalized data, ranked BCH under the Red_Farm irrigation strategy as the most effective management approach, achieving the highest overall score compared to the other fertilizer treatments in combination with the different irrigation strategies, thereby balancing high yields with significant water savings.

Struktur Komunitas Fitoplankton dan Tingkat Pencemaran di Danau Dendam Tak Sudah, Kota Bengkulu

Dendam Tak Sudah Lake (DDTS) is an aquatic ecosystem and nature reserve located in Dusun Besar Village, Singgaran Pati District, Bengkulu City. Its presence serves not only as a tourist destination and irrigation water supply for rice fields but also as a habitat for phytoplankton. The land use changes around the DDTS Nature Reserve have impacted the water quality of the lake, and phytoplankton are among the biota affected by these pressures. This study aims to assess the phytoplankton community structure and the pollution level in DDTS. The research was conducted by identifying and counting each phytoplankton species found and analyzing water quality. The results of the study showed that the phytoplankton richness in DDTS consisted of 20 species, including 8 species from the Bacillariophyceae class, 6 species from the Chlorophyceae class, 2 species from the Cyanophyceae class, and 4 species from the Euglenophyceae class. The highest phytoplankton abundance was found at the inlet with 1,135.2 individuals/l, followed by the midlet with 1,095.6 individuals/l, and the outlet with 997.2 individuals/l. The diversity index values were high (2.6-2.8), the evenness index was high (0.95-0.96), and dominance was low (0.07-0.08). The saprobic coefficient in DDTS was classified as β-Meso/Oligosaprobic, indicating that the water quality is lightly polluted, with a saprobic index value ranging from 0.6 to 0.87.

Proposed water valuation scheme for a more sustainable agricultural water productivity

<p>Growing depletion of groundwater resources is a global threat and intensified under improper water valuation systems. Here, we proposed an irrigation water valuation framework based on the opportunity cost concept (IWVF), to better differentiate the value of surface water, renewable, and nonrenewable groundwater. In this study, a 10-years dataset was used in Marvdasht-Kharameh irrigation networks (MKINs) in southern Iran, where groundwater depletion overshoots the sustainable level with an annual average rate of 1.42 m y<sup>−1</sup>. Irrigation water use, net incomes and losses, and economic water productivities (EWP) were estimated under the common and newly developed valuation methods. The reflections of adopting IWVF on EWPs were assessed under current condition and the proposed WP improvement scenarios, including removing irrigation efficiency gaps, changing the cropping calendar, and application of different levels of deficit irrigation. Results showed that the value of irrigation water supply ($436.91 million) exceeds gross income through crop production ($139.01 million) under current condition, which results in a net loss of $297.9 million in the study area. Hence, economic WP loss will be −0.33 $ m<sup>−3</sup>, meaning that consuming a unit of blue water causes $0.33 income loss under current condition. Applying WP improvement scenarios can reduce value of irrigation water by 27%, and gross income by 5.3%. Accordingly, common WP can increase by 6.6% from 1.81 to 1.93 kg m<sup>−3</sup>. However, the negative sign of EWP loss under management scenarios (−0.22 $ m<sup>−3</sup>) indicates that crop production in the study area is not viable due to its considerable environmental damages. Hence, current irrigation system should be revisited when sustainable agriculture is considered. The proposed water valuation method can help decision makers to better assess the consequences of WP improvement strategies, if the true value of different water resources is ignored. </p>

The Analysis of Planting Procedures in Katiga Irrigation Area, Cigandamekar District, Kuningan Regency

Water Resources Management involves planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating the conservation, utilization, and damage control of water resources. Various issues can arise from an insufficient irrigation water supply, particularly during the dry season. Therefore, assessing plant water requirements, irrigation water availability, and planting patterns is crucial. The Katiga irrigation area, covering 1,010 hectares, is actively used for rice cultivation. During the rainy season, the main crops grown by farmers are rice and secondary crops across three growing seasons. This research calculates water availability by determining the 80% discharge (Q80). The results indicate that the available water for the Katiga irrigation area, located in Cigandamekar Sub-District, Kuningan Regency, ranges from 201.20 l/sec to 1,137.55 l/sec, with the highest water requirement being 956.29 l/sec. The recommended planting pattern is 83% rice and 17% secondary crops for the first growing season, 66% rice and 34% secondary crops for the second growing season, and 29% rice and 17% secondary crops for the third growing season, with the additional division of the field into three groups.

Unraveling the Distinct Roles of Snowmelt and Glacier‐Melt on Agricultural Water Availability: A Novel Indicator and Its Application in a Glacierized Basin of China’s Arid Region

AbstractMountain runoff is a vital water source for irrigation in global arid regions. Investigating the roles of major mountain runoff components such as snowmelt and glacier‐melt, on downstream irrigation water availability is important for understanding water resource security. Snowmelt and glacier‐melt have different timing and availability. However, their potentially distinct impacts on water supplies for downstream irrigation have been seldom investigated previously. This study proposes a novel indicator, Irrigation Dependence on runoff Component (IDC), to assess the individual impact of different runoff components on irrigation water availability, considering water supply, water demand and their relationship. Applying IDC to the Yarkant River basin (YRB) in China’s arid region, mainly fed by mountain runoff from the northern Tibetan Plateau, reveals that, despite glacier‐melt runoff being the primary contributor to total runoff in the YRB, irrigation water availability is generally more reliant on snowmelt runoff due to seasonal variations in the water supply/demand relationship. Further sensitivity tests under 48 climate scenarios indicate that IDC of glacier‐melt runoff significantly increases under drier climates, while that of snowmelt runoff decreases as the climate warms, implying potentially increased importance of glacier‐melt in future, especially under drier conditions and during the transition season. Additionally, the crucial role of anthropogenic factors, including changes in planting area and irrigation water use efficiency, in influencing irrigation water demand is highlighted for improved estimation. This study provides important implications on how cryosphere changes impact water resources management and an efficient indicator for further studies in glacierized arid basins globally.

HYDROLOGICAL JUSTIFICATION OF THE ARTIK RESERVOIR VOLUME

The river flow within the territory of Armenia is distributed rather unevenly across space and time. The predominant portion of the river flow is generated during spring, primarily due to snowmelt and precipitation. From this perspective, it becomes necessary to store the river flow generated in spring for its use during the low-water periods of summer and autumn, ensuring water supply for irrigation and other purposes. Considering this, it is proposed to reconstruct the Artik reservoir on the river Artikjur with a capacity of up to 1.2 million cubic meters.

Evaluation of coupled SWAT-MODFLOW-NWT model for conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater resources in the Mahabad plain of Iran

The Urmia Lake Basin has been severely affected by the unbalanced exploitation of water resources. To better manage the use of integrated water resources, the coupled SWAT-MODFLOW-NWT was adopted for the Mahabad Plain in the Urmia Lake Basin, N.W. Iran. The results indicated that a multifunctional calibration of SWAT and MODFLOW-NWT hydrological models in a large-scale irrigated area was necessary, using parameters such as evapotranspiration and crop yield in addition to the usual surface runoff and water table measures. The coupled model was then used to evaluate several water allocation scenarios, such as alternate proportions of irrigation water allocation from conjunctive water resources. The ultimate objective of adopting these scenarios was to increase the residual share of the water supply in order to compensate for the deprived share of Urmia Lake. The results of this study demonstrated that that the coupled SWAT-MODFLOW-NWT model was able to satisfactorily simulate the surface and groundwater balance components at different spatial and temporal dimensions. The results indicate that the Mahabad aquifer is capable of supplying irrigation water needs in the central and northern regions, with some limitations around running rivers. Furthermore, groundwater sustainability indicators showed that even with an additional 30% of the water supply from groundwater, the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources was preserved Ultimately, the findings indicated that a reduction in water allocation from surface waters can lead to an increase in water release to the lake of 16 million cubic meters (21%) to 18 million cubic meters (25%) in different years. The outcomes of this study can serve as a guiding principle for the optimal and sustainable allocation of surface and groundwater resources in highly competitive and fragile basins such as Lake Urmia.

TARIFFS FOR WATER SUPPLY SERVICES FOR IRRIGATION AS A TOOL FOR ATTRACTING INVESTMENTS TO IMPROVE WATER USE AND AMELIORATIVE INFRASTRUCTURE

Conceptual approaches to increasing the investment attractiveness in water resources and land reclamation infrastructure should be adapted to solving the problems facing states and societies, including measures to ensure sustainable economic development and environmental protection. The implementation of investment and infrastructure projects is provided for by the Irrigation and Drainage Development Strategy until 2030 and is becoming relevant in solving the problems of the Ukrainian economy. Implementing a tariff policy will allow for maintaining land reclamation infrastructure in working condition, reducing the energy intensity of water supply for irrigation, establishing technological integrity of water use, etc. Such tasks draw attention to increasing the function of tariffs as one of the sources of covering investments in water infrastructure. A general trend in solving problems can be considered a broad view of problems, lower risk, and higher management reliability. The article critically analyzes the experience of using irrigated lands based on the introduction of tariffs, given the investment component of tariffs and the use of mobilized funds for investment activities. Productive and inefficient principles of tariff formation are shown, and the importance of land reclamation infrastructure and current directions of financing irrigation infrastructure in EU countries are revealed through compliance with the requirement of targeted funds spending for infrastructure facilities. Based on the risk classification, the significance and impact of risks in the operation of land reclamation systems in market conditions are given; the main components of tariff formation in irrigation water supply services, which include investments in improving land reclamation infrastructure, are outlined; contents of the investment component in the activities of water user organizations (WUO) is indicated, and the ways for the return on investment in land reclamation infrastructure in Ukraine are outlined. Ukraine's experience in successfully using the irrigation potential through a tariff policy for water supply can serve as an example for other countries.

Physicochemical Parameters of Sabke Reservoir, Katsina State, Nigeria

Reservoirs, as critical water resources, serve diverse purposes such as irrigation, fisheries, and domestic water supply. This study evaluates the physicochemical parameters of Sabke Reservoir in Katsina State, Nigeria, with focusing on understanding their ecological impact and pollution status. The research, conducted between June and November 2024, analysed parameters such as temperature, pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), and conductivity across three sampling stations (upstream, middle, and downstream). Measurements were taken following APHA standards and subjected to statistical analysis using ANOVA and the Duncan Multiple Range Test at a 95% confidence interval. Results revealed significant seasonal and spatial variations in the reservoir’s physicochemical parameters. Temperature ranged from 27.96°C to 30.00°C, with higher values observed during October. Turbidity peaked at 55.83 NTU in November, exceeding WHO permissible limits and reflecting sedimentation and runoff impacts. pH values remained neutral to slightly acidic (6.32–6.89), suitable for aquatic organisms. DO concentrations (5.09–5.63 mg/L) were stable but slightly below WHO recommendations for aquatic life. TDS values (319.3–397.3 mg/L) exceeded permissible limits, correlating strongly with conductivity (r=0.617, p<0.01), indicating increased ionic concentrations. The study underscores the influence of seasonal changes and anthropogenic activities on water quality. High turbidity and TDS levels pose potential risks to aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem functionality. These findings are consistent with studies across Nigeria and other tropical regions, emphasizing the need for integrated management strategies to mitigate pollution and sustain the ecological health of reservoirs.

Intelligent Management of the Pumping System for Irrigation of MBAWAANDE Lands in Podor within the NANN-K Project

This article addresses the constraints in exploiting the "MBAWAANDE" lands, particularly the challenges posed by their irrigation system. Currently, the system is powered by a diesel motor pump and a photovoltaic solar system located far apart, leading to inefficiencies and operational difficulties. To mitigate these issues, we propose replacing the motor pump with a generator mounted in parallel with the photovoltaic solar system. This new hybrid configuration, automated by an algorithm, aims to reduce the operational constraints related to distance and minimize diesel consumption, while ensuring continuous and reliable irrigation. The hybrid system integrates the strengths of both power sources, allowing for more flexible and sustainable water pumping. The diesel generator provides backup power during periods of low solar irradiance, ensuring that irrigation needs are met without interruption. Meanwhile, the photovoltaic system takes advantage of renewable energy, reducing dependency on fossil fuels and lowering operational costs. To validate the efficiency and effectiveness of this new configuration, we conducted a simulation using Matlab/Simulink. The results demonstrated that the hybrid system significantly enhances water pumping efficiency with minimal human intervention, ensuring a steady water supply for irrigation. These findings highlight the potential for hybrid systems to improve agricultural practices, especially in remote and resource-constrained areas.

Irrigation Water Demand Management-Based Innovative Strategy: Model Application on the Green Riyadh Initiative, Saudi Arabia

Water demand is expected to dramatically increase due to the spread of green and landscape project developments. The main objective of this study is to enhance water demand management in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, based on an innovative strategy utilizing remote sensing techniques. Furthermore, this study focuses on the Green Riyadh initiative, which emphasizes the need for sustainable water use in urban green areas amidst growing water scarcity. The majority of urban water supplies for irrigation are utilized to maintain vegetation health, aesthetic appearance, and municipal amenities. By employing advanced remote sensing (RS) techniques through Landsat 8 satellite imagery alongside ground-verification methodologies, the research develops a new approach called the Plant Coefficient Method (PCM) to estimate plant evapotranspiration () rates for various landscape plants. The study quantifies water demands and evaluates the relationship between plant coefficient values, reference ET rates, and vegetation indices, revealing distinct patterns in spatial and temporal water usage, identifying effective species selections, and providing essential insights for enhancing water conservation strategies in arid environments. Moreover, the study exposes an average annual precipitation of just 73 mm in Riyadh and finds that with good management based on PCM, average daily projected rates may be as low as 2.6 mm/day, greatly decreasing water needs by around 70% to 50% when compared to higher categorization situations. The findings underscore the importance of integrating accurate ET estimation methods in irrigation planning to support sustainable landscape management and minimize the ecological impact of urban development in drought-prone regions.

Optimized Evaluations of Irrigation Profits and Balance of Irrigation Water Demand and Supply Under Climate Change

Optimizing irrigation profit is essential for enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring sustainable water resource management, especially under the uncertainties caused by climate variability. It signifies that maximizing irrigation profits has become the primary consideration of current agricultural irrigation systems. By discussing the change in irrigation profits with irrigation fraction f, which represents the proportion of irrigated farmland per unit area of cultivated land, a new method of qualitative diagnosis of irrigation supply and demand balance was proposed by means of the optimal irrigation fraction f0 corresponding to the objective function yf and the correlation coefficient ρ between irrigation water demand anomalies D^ and irrigation water withdrawal anomalies I^ (ρD^,I^=0). It will serve as a new attempt to optimize irrigation profits. We argue that the optimal objective function yf0 represents the state of equilibrium of irrigation supply and demand. This study proposes a reverse optimization idea, which includes two comparison methods, to estimate the comprehensively optimal irrigation fraction f0 that maximizes irrigation profits and irrigation profit per unit area while minimizing risks associated with climatic anomalies. By demonstrating that f0 performs exceptionally well in meeting the objectives of maximizing irrigation profits and minimizing risks across various climatic scenarios, we suggest a robust method for optimizing irrigation profits, which simply calculates ρD^,I^f=0 because ρD^,I^ is the function of f. Since f0 could capture the optimal solution to the greatest extent. It can serve as a simple and effective solution to determine the optimal objective function yf0 and diagnose the state of balance between irrigation water demand and supply. This method offers practical implications for water resource management and agricultural planning in the face of climate change.

A novel approach to include small reservoirs into a global hydrological model: Assessing its potential to reduce the agricultural water gap of smallholder farmers in Senegal

Study regionThe country of Senegal Study focusOne consequence of climate change is shifting precipitation patterns towards shorter rainfall regimes, posing challenges to societies relying on agricultural activities. A possible avenue to alleviate the impact of climate change is the construction small-scale reservoirs to locally supply irrigation water for small-holder farmers. Here, we assess the ability of small-scale reservoirs to close the agricultural water gap in Senegal. To this end we introduce a method to find locations and capacities of small-scale reservoirs in a 1 km hyper-resolution global hydrological model that are most effective in minimizing the water gap. New hydrologic insights for the regionWe find that the effect of small-scale reservoirs varies regionally, and that the optimum design does not close the water gap. More locally, the water gap can be reduced during the growing season, indicating that small-holder farmers in vicinity to such reservoirs can benefit. To close the remaining water gap, we assessed the feasibility of groundwater pumping. With pumping, the water gap can be closed, yet often only at the expense of sustainable groundwater use. Due to the novelty of the methods presented, this study should not provide any input to actual decisions. It shows, however, the potential of using hyper-resolution hydrological models for small-scale analyses. More practically, it highlights the immense challenges for societies affected by the climate crisis to meet their water demand in a sustainable way.

Performance Indicators for Improving Irrigation Management in Aegean District

Water is vital for agriculture and its effective use has become imperative. The largest share of freshwater use in the world is in the agricultural sector with a rate of approximately 70%. Therefore, the evaluation of irrigation schemes is of great importance. In Türkiye, irrigation schemes are managed and distributed by organizations such as water user associations, municipalities, and irrigation cooperatives. In Türkiye, irrigation schemes with a service area of 500 ha or more are managed by water user associations. In this study, Ahmetli, Salihli and Menemen water user associations’ irrigation schemes, where the Gediz River is used as a water source, were chosen as materials. The selected irrigation schemes service area constitutes 60% of the total service area in the region (DSI (General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works) 2nd Region (Aegean region)). The service area of Ahmetli irrigation scheme is 50,532 ha, 22,797 ha in Salihli and 22,865 ha in Menemen. The main crop pattern of the irrigation area is vineyards, corn and cotton. These irrigation schemes were evaluated using performance indicators such as water supply, irrigation rate, and amount of irrigation water used per unit area. The raw data sets obtained from DSI cover the years 2007 and 2021. As a result, when looking at the average performance, relative water supply, irrigation rate and amount of irrigation water used per unit area were found to be 0.70, 57.99 and 7682.45 m3 ha-1, respectively. Although 70% of the irrigation water need can be met with the water diversion to the system, the irrigation ratio was approximately 58% indicating the problems in transferring water to the system and the irrigation techniques used by farmers on the field are not modern. In addition, the main reasons for the unirrigated areas, are social and economic reasons (137 ha in the Menemen WUA) and the lack of water supply in the Salihli and Ahmetli WUAs, 2319 ha and 11320 ha cannot be irrigated, respectively. Modernization seems inevitable for more effective use of our water resources. The most effective techniques in this modernization are land consolidation, renewal of irrigation channels, extension and consultancy services to farmers, and making water fees according to volume can be counted.

Water demand and supply under future water development and climate change scenarios in the upper Blue Nile basin

ABSTRACT Integrated methodological approaches to analyzing water demand and supply under changing scenarios in a river basin are crucial for managing water resources. To better understand the influence of socioeconomic and climate change on water supply, this study employed an integrated methodological approach that included the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) hydrology and the water evaluation and planning (WEAP) models. Water development scenarios were created for two time periods: near future (2021–2040) and full development (2041–2060). During the current account period, water for irrigation delivery was balanced, and existing hydropower facilities generated energy at full capacity (3,159 GWh). However, irrigation water supply in the near future and full development scenarios shows a shortfall (267 Mm3 and 594 Mm3 under RCP4.5, and 213 Mm3 and 611 Mm3 under RCP8.5, respectively). Despite the basin's energy production will increase during the scenario periods, under-construction and planned hydropower plants are predicted to operate at less than full capacity (44,921 GWh under RCP4.5 and 44,539 GWh under RCP8.5). The study concluded that climate change-induced water availability and irrigation expansion would contribute to the water supply-demand mismatch. As a result, water resource management is required to increase water availability, minimize water demand, and reduce unmet demand.

Examining the Barriers to Redesigning Smallholder Production Practices for Water-Use Efficiency in Numbi, Mbombela Local Municipality, South Africa

Smallholder farmers in South Africa face issues related to water shortages and poor irrigation water management. This study investigated barriers to improving water-use efficiency (WUE) in smallholder production practices in Numbi, South Africa. The objectives were to identify barriers in redesigning production practices for higher agricultural productivity and analyze the relationship between irrigation water supply and the adoption of WUE methods. From a population of 7696 people, 141 smallholder farmers were sampled using a simple random sampling technique through Taro Yamane’s sample size formula. The data were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and descriptive statistics. Unreliable water supply (M = 3.78, SD = 0.85), poor soil water retention (M = 3.78, SD = 0.85), lack of water-efficient irrigation systems (M = 3.91, SD = 0.71), lack of water storage facilities (M = 3.85, SD = 0.93), limited access to credit (M = 4.09, SD = 0.85), income instability due to market fluctuations (M = 3.96, SD = 0.91), inadequate knowledge of irrigation management (M = 4.00, SD = 0.84), and harsh climatic factors were identified. A positive correlation (r = 0.339, n = 141, p < 0.001) between irrigation water source and WUE techniques was evident, indicating that irrigation water source had an insignificant impact on WUE methods. Resolving these barriers requires a holistic approach focusing on investments in irrigation infrastructure and targeted education initiatives by extension agents and other stakeholders, as this can enhance agricultural productivity.

Uji Irigasi Tetes Bertingkat Empat Pada Media Tanaman Campuran Tanah Cocopeat dan Kompos Ternak Terhadap Resapan dan Lengas Tanah

The utilization of multilevel drip irrigation needs to be supported by adequate planting media so that the provision of irrigation water is optimal. The planting media used practically uses soil mixed with livestock waste compost and cocopeat in polybags. This test aims to determine the ability of drip irrigation water absorption by the planting media in the form of irrigation depth and soil moisture provision and prediction of irrigation application with a certain duration. The study was conducted on a ½” PVC pipe drip irrigation network with a 2 lt/hour emitter, on a land size of 2 m x 4m x 2m with a water source from PDAM water which is stored in a tank with a capacity of 150 liters and a height of 2.5 m. The test data taken includes data on the distribution of irrigation volume, irrigation depth and soil moisture. The results of the analysis showed that the distribution of drip irrigation depth in cocopeat media ranged from 7.5 cm - 12 cm in 5 minutes, while in rice husks the absorption was around 6.5 cm - 10 cm for the planting media level, with an average Cu of 96% which is very good. The maximum soil moisture that can be provided by four-tiered drip irrigation at a duration of 5 minutes is 30.5% in the early growth phase and at a duration of 10 minutes the average soil moisture is 15%, in the Vegetative phase of plant growth until fruit ripening. So the high irrigation infiltration rate in cocopeat media has the potential to be applied to plants that have long or deep roots, while planting media with rice husks has the potential to be applied to plants with short roots such as vegetables.

Evaluasi Dan Modifikasi Pola Tata Tanam Daerah Irigasi Prako Berdasarkan Ketersediaan Air

Prako Weir in East Lombok Regency has limited water availability, which affects its ability to serve the provision of irrigation water. Failure to meet irrigation water needs is increasingly felt, so adaptation steps are needed to reduce more significant losses at the farmer level. This study aims to evaluate the current cropping pattern and obtain alternative cropping patterns that are more appropriate according to water availability in Prako Weir to minimize the potential for farmer crop failure. The study began by analysing water availability by calculating the mainstay discharge using a ranking method using Prako Weir discharge data. Continued analysing water requirements in the current cropping pattern and several alternative cropping patterns using the KP-01 method. Furthermore, the best cropping pattern was selected using the water balance method. The results obtained were the best cropping pattern according to the water availability pattern in Prako Weir, namely Rice-Soybeans-Soybeans, which began planting in early October, with an annual water surplus of 775.24 l/second. Meanwhile, the current cropping pattern, Rice-Rice-Soybeans, shows an annual deficit of 625.31 lt/second. However, if economic considerations are used, then the current planting pattern is still acceptable even though it is at risk of being unable to meet its water needs. However, a solution can be taken by providing water in turns.

A Review of Climate Change Impacts on Irrigation Water Demand and Supply - A Detailed Analysis of Trends, Evolution, and Future Research Directions

A Review of Climate Change Impacts on Irrigation Water Demand and Supply - A Detailed Analysis of Trends, Evolution, and Future Research Directions

Overall performance assessment of selected small-scale irrigation schemes using internal and external performance indicators in West Hararghe Zone, Eastern Ethiopia

This study was conducted to evaluate the overall performance of selected small-scale irrigation schemes using internal and external performance indicators. The performance of the irrigation schemes in relation to water balance was evaluated using three indicators. The results indicated that the relative water supply (RWS), relative irrigation supply (RIS), and field application ratio (FAR) of Midagdu irrigation scheme were 0.9, 1.3, and 0.75 respectively. This indicates that the water supply is not closely related to the water demand. However, for the Wadeti Irrigation scheme, the RWS, RIS, and FAR are 0.48, 0.35, and 2.83, respectively, indicating water stress. The Midagdu irrigation scheme shows 7496.75 birr/ha for both output per unit command area and output per unit cropped area. Output per unit irrigation water supply was 12.5 birr/m3, while output per unit water consumed was 4.4 birr/m3. For the Wadeti irrigation scheme, the values were 11,276.12 birr/ha, 11,276.12 birr/ha, 8.7 birr/m3, and 1.6 birr/m3, respectively. This study results showed that the Wadeti irrigation scheme is more land-efficient, while the Midagdu scheme is more water-efficient. The values of the hydraulic performance indicators Conveyance Efficiency (Ec), Water delivery capacity (WDC), and Delivery Performance Ratio (DPR), for the Midagdu irrigation scheme were 75 %, 0.45, and 0.8, respectively, while for the Wadeti irrigation scheme, the values were 42 %, 0.11, and 0.4, respectively. These results indicate that the water delivery performance of the two schemes was poor. Therefore, improving the hydraulic performance of the scheme requires minimizing water conveyance losses.