Superconducting Quantum Devices Research Articles

Simulating nonlinear optical processes on a superconducting quantum device

Simulating plasma physics on quantum computers is difficult because most problems of interest are nonlinear, but quantum computers are not naturally suitable for nonlinear operations. In weakly nonlinear regimes, plasma problems can be modelled as wave–wave interactions. In this paper, we develop a quantization approach to convert nonlinear wave–wave interaction problems to Hamiltonian simulation problems. We demonstrate our approach using two qubits on a superconducting device. Unlike a photonic device, a superconducting device does not naturally have the desired interactions in its native Hamiltonian. Nevertheless, Hamiltonian simulations can still be performed by decomposing required unitary operations into native gates. To improve experimental results, we employ a range of error-mitigation techniques. Apart from readout error mitigation, we use randomized compilation to transform undiagnosed coherent errors into well-behaved stochastic Pauli channels. Moreover, to compensate for stochastic noise, we rescale exponentially decaying probability amplitudes using rates measured from cycle benchmarking. We carefully consider how different choices of product-formula algorithms affect the overall error and show how a trade-off can be made to best utilize limited quantum resources. This study provides an example of how plasma problems may be solved on near-term quantum computing platforms.

Mitigating coherent loss in superconducting circuits using molecular self-assembled monolayers

In planar superconducting circuits, decoherence due to materials imperfections, especially two-level-system (TLS) defects at different interfaces, is a primary hurdle for advancing quantum computing and sensing applications. Traditional methods for mitigating TLS loss, such as etching oxide layers at metal and substrate interfaces, have proven to be inadequate due to the persistent challenge of oxide regrowth. In this work, we introduce a novel approach that employs molecular self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) to chemically bind at different interfaces of superconducting circuits. This technique is specifically tested here on coplanar waveguide (CPW) resonators, in which this method not only impedes oxide regrowth after surface etching but can also tailors the dielectric properties at different resonators interfaces. The deployment of SAMs results in a consistent improvement in the measured quality factors across multiple resonators, surpassing those with only oxide-etched resonators. The efficiency of our approach i3s supported by microwave measurements of multiple devices conducted at millikelvin temperatures and correlated with detailed X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterizations of SAM-passivated resonators. The compatibility of SAMs materials with the established fabrication techniques offers a promising route to improve the performance of superconducting quantum devices.

Interfering Josephson diode effect in Ta2Pd3Te5 asymmetric edge interferometer

Edge states in topological systems have attracted great interest due to their robustness and linear dispersions. Here a superconducting-proximitized edge interferometer is engineered on a topological insulator Ta2Pd3Te5 with asymmetric edges to realize the interfering Josephson diode effect (JDE), which hosts many advantages, such as the high efficiency as much as 73% at tiny applied magnetic fields with an ultra-low switching power around picowatt. As an important element to induce such JDE, the second-order harmonic in the current-phase relation is also experimentally confirmed by half-integer Shapiro steps. The interfering JDE is also accompanied by the antisymmetric second harmonic transport, which indicates the corresponding asymmetry in the interferometer, as well as the polarity of JDE. This edge interferometer offers an effective method to enhance the performance of JDE, and boosts great potential applications for future superconducting quantum devices.

Solving the Hele–Shaw flow using the Harrow–Hassidim–Lloyd algorithm on superconducting devices: A study of efficiency and challenges

The development of quantum processors for practical fluid flow problems is a promising yet distant goal. Recent advances in quantum linear solvers have highlighted their potential for classical fluid dynamics. In this study, we evaluate the Harrow–Hassidim–Lloyd (HHL) quantum linear systems algorithm (QLSA) for solving the idealized Hele–Shaw flow. Our focus is on the accuracy and computational cost of the HHL solver, which we find to be sensitive to the condition number, scaling exponentially with problem size. This emphasizes the need for preconditioning to enhance the practical use of QLSAs in fluid flow applications. Moreover, we perform shots-based simulations on quantum simulators and test the HHL solver on superconducting quantum devices, where noise, large circuit depths, and gate errors limit performance. Error suppression and mitigation techniques improve accuracy, suggesting that such fluid flow problems can benchmark noise mitigation efforts. Our findings provide a foundation for future, more complex application of QLSAs in fluid flow simulations.

SQuADDS: A validated design database and simulation workflow for superconducting qubit design

We present an open-source database of superconducting quantum device designs that may be used as the starting point for customized devices. Each design can be generated programmatically using the open-source Qiskit Metal package, and simulated using finite-element electromagnetic solvers. We present a robust workflow for achieving high accuracy on design simulations. Many designs in the database are experimentally validated, showing excellent agreement between simulated and measured parameters. Our database includes a front-end interface that allows users to generate ``best-guess'' designs based on desired circuit parameters. This project lowers the barrier to entry for research groups seeking to make a new class of devices by providing them a well-characterized starting point from which to refine their designs.

In-situ deposited anti-aging TiN capping layer for Nb superconducting quantum circuits

Abstract The performance of Nb superconducting quantum devices is predominantly limited by dielectric loss at the metal–air interface, where Nb2O5 is considered the main loss source. Here, we suppress the formation of native oxides by in-situ deposition of a TiN capping layer on the Nb film. With TiN capping layers, no Nb2O5 forms on the surface of the Nb film. The quality factor Q i of the Nb resonator increases from 5.6 × 105 to 7.9 × 105 at low input power and from 6.8 × 106 to 1.1 × 107 at high input power. Furthermore, the TiN capping layer also shows good aging resistance in Nb resonator devices, with no significant performance fluctuations after one month of aging. These findings highlight the effectiveness of TiN capping layers in enhancing the performance and longevity of Nb superconducting quantum devices.

Abatement of ionizing radiation for superconducting quantum devices

Ionizing radiation has been shown to reduce the performance of superconducting quantum circuits. In this report, we evaluate the expected contributions of different sources of ambient radioactivity for typical superconducting qubit experiment platforms. Our assessment of radioactivity inside a typical cryostat highlights the importance of selecting appropriate materials for the experiment components nearest to qubit devices, such as packaging and electrical interconnects. We present a shallow underground facility (30-meter water equivalent) to reduce the flux of cosmic rays and a lead shielded cryostat to abate the naturally occurring radiogenic gamma-ray flux in the laboratory environment. We predict that superconducting qubit devices operated in this facility could experience a reduced rate of correlated multi-qubit errors by a factor of approximately 20 relative to the rate in a typical above-ground, unshielded facility. Finally, we outline overall design improvements that would be required to further reduce the residual ionizing radiation rate, down to the limit of current generation direct detection dark matter experiments.

Characterization of entanglement on superconducting quantum computers of up to 414 qubits

As quantum technology advances and the size of quantum computers grow, it becomes increasingly important to understand the extent of quality in the devices. As large-scale entanglement is a quantum resource crucial for achieving quantum advantage, the challenge in its generation makes it a valuable benchmark for measuring the performance of universal quantum devices. In this paper, we study entanglement in Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) and graph states prepared on the range of IBM Quantum devices. We generate GHZ states and investigate their coherence times with respect to state size and dynamical decoupling techniques. A GHZ fidelity of 0.519±0.014 is measured on a 32-qubit GHZ state, certifying its genuine multipartite entanglement (GME). We show a substantial improvement in GHZ decoherence rates for a seven-qubit GHZ state after implementing dynamical decoupling, and observe a linear trend in the decoherence rate of α=(7.13N+5.54)×10−3µs−1 for up to N=15 qubits, confirming the absence of superdecoherence. Additionally, we prepare and characterize fully bipartite entangled native-graph states on 22 superconducting quantum devices with qubit counts as high as 414 qubits, all active qubits of the 433-qubit IBM Osprey device. Analysis of the decay of two-qubit entanglement within the prepared states shows suppression of coherent noise signals with the implementation of dynamical decoupling techniques. Additionally, we observe that the entanglement in some qubit pairs oscillates over time, which is likely caused by residual ZZ-interactions. Characterizing entanglement in native-graph states, along with detecting entanglement oscillations, can be an effective approach to low-level device benchmarking that encapsulates two-qubit error rates along with additional sources of noise, with possible applications to quantum circuit compilation. We develop several tools to automate the preparation and entanglement characterization of GHZ and graph states. In particular, a method to characterize graph state bipartite entanglement using just 36 circuits, constant with respect to the number of qubits. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Flux-pulse-assisted readout of a fluxonium qubit

Much attention has focused on the transmon architecture for large-scale superconducting quantum devices; however, the fluxonium qubit has emerged as a possible successor. With a shunting inductor in parallel to a Josephson junction, the fluxonium offers larger anharmonicity and stronger protection against dielectric loss, leading to higher coherence times as compared to conventional transmon qubits. The interplay between the inductive and Josephson energy potentials of the fluxonium qubit leads to a rich dispersive-shift landscape when tuning the external flux. Here, we propose to exploit the features in the dispersive shift to improve qubit readout. Specifically, we report on theoretical simulations showing improved readout times and error rates by performing the readout at a flux-bias point with large dispersive shift. We expand the scheme to include different error channels and show that with an integration time of 155 ns, flux-pulse-assisted readout offers about a 5-times improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio. Moreover, we show that the performance improvement persists in the presence of finite measurement efficiency combined with quasistatic flux noise and also when considering the increased Purcell rate at the flux-pulse-assisted readout point. We suggest a set of reasonable energy parameters for the fluxonium architecture that will allow for the implementation of our proposed flux-pulse-assisted readout scheme. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

From Structure to Coherence: Comprehensive Electron Microscopy Analysis of Superconducting Quantum Devices

From Structure to Coherence: Comprehensive Electron Microscopy Analysis of Superconducting Quantum Devices

Observation of Superconductivity Up to 8.7 K in Reduced Potassium Tantalate

AbstractThe observation of superconductivity with a transition temperature (Tc) up to 8.7 K in KTaO3 single crystals annealed with CaH2 at 900–1000 °C is reported. The superconductivity is confirmed by both resistance and magnetization measurements and is 3D in nature. Characterizations of X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, and scanning transmission electron microscopy reveal that it locates in a 1‐µm‐order‐thick polycrystalline surface layer that shows a rock‐salt type structure, with a lattice constant of 0.454 nm, and can be chemically identified as KxTaOy (0.04 ≤ x ≤ 0.08, 1.24 ≤ y ≤ 1.35), depending on annealing conditions. Within the experimental ranges, the Tc is peaked at x ≈0.05, and increases with decreasing y, and the highest Tc is observed in K0.05TaO1.24. The Tc observed here is much higher than that of KTaO3, Ta, and pure TaO, and is also one of the highest among of all the known oxide superconductors with the same rock‐salt structure. The rather high Tc and its close connection with KTaO3 and Ta, both of which are promising materials for quantum computing, make KxTaOy potentially interesting as a building block in constructing future superconducting quantum devices.

Low-loss α-tantalum coplanar waveguide resonators on silicon wafers: fabrication, characterization and surface modification

The performance of state-of-the-art superconducting quantum devices is currently limited by microwave dielectric loss at different interfaces. α-tantalum is a superconductor that has proven effective in reducing dielectric loss and improving device performance due to its thin low-loss oxide. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication of high-quality factor α-tantalum coplanar-waveguide resonators directly on pristine 300 mm silicon wafers over a variety of metal deposition conditions and perform a comprehensive material and electrical characterization study. Additionally, we apply a surface treatment based on hydrofluoric acid that allows us to modify different resonators surfaces, leading to a reduction in two-level system loss in the devices by a factor of three. This loss reduction can be entirely attributed to the removal of surface oxides. Our study indicates that large scale manufacturing of low-loss superconducting circuits should indeed be feasible and suggests a viable avenue to materials-driven advancements in superconducting circuit performance.

Microwave quantum memcapacitor effect

Developing the field of neuromorphic quantum computing necessitates designing scalable quantum memory devices. Here, we propose a superconducting quantum memory device in the microwave regime, termed a microwave quantum memcapacitor. It comprises two linked resonators, the primary one is coupled to a Superconducting Quantum Interference Device, which allows for the modulation of the resonator properties through external magnetic flux. The auxiliary resonator, operated through weak measurements, provides feedback to the primary resonator, ensuring stable memory behavior. This device operates with a classical input in one cavity while reading the response in the other, serving as a fundamental building block toward arrays of microwave quantum memcapacitors. We observe that a bipartite setup can retain its memory behavior and gains entanglement and quantum correlations. Our findings pave the way for the experimental implementation of memcapacitive superconducting quantum devices and memory device arrays for neuromorphic quantum computing.

Formation and Microwave Losses of Hydrides in Superconducting Niobium Thin Films Resulting from Fluoride Chemical Processing

AbstractSuperconducting niobium (Nb) thin films have recently attracted significant attention due to their utility for quantum information technologies. In the processing of Nb thin films, fluoride‐based chemical etchants are commonly used to remove surface oxides that are known to affect superconducting quantum devices adversely. However, these same etchants can also introduce hydrogen to form Nb hydrides, potentially negatively impacting microwave loss performance. Here, comprehensive materials characterization of Nb hydrides formed in Nb thin films as a function of fluoride chemical treatments is presented. In particular, secondary‐ion mass spectrometry, X‐ray scattering, and transmission electron microscopy reveal the spatial distribution and phase transformation of Nb hydrides. The rate of hydride formation is determined by the fluoride solution acidity and the etch rate of Nb2O5, which acts as a diffusion barrier for hydrogen into Nb. The resulting Nb hydrides are detrimental to Nb superconducting properties and lead to increased power‐independent microwave loss in coplanar waveguide resonators. However, Nb hydrides do not correlate with two‐level system loss or device aging mechanisms. Overall, this work provides insight into the formation of Nb hydrides and their role in microwave loss, thus guiding ongoing efforts to maximize coherence time in superconducting quantum devices.

Circle fit optimization for resonator quality factor measurements: Point redistribution for maximal accuracy

The control of material loss mechanisms is playing an increasingly important role for improving coherence times of superconducting quantum devices. Such material losses can be characterized through the measurement of planar superconducting resonators, which reflect losses through the resonance's quality factor Ql. The resonance quality factor consists of both internal (material) losses as well as coupling losses when resonance photons escape back into the measurement circuit. The combined losses are then described as Ql−1=Re{Qc−1}+Qi−1, where Qc and Qi reflect the coupling and internal quality factors of the resonator, respectively. To separate the relative contributions of Qi and Qc to Ql, diameter-correcting circle fits use algebraic or geometric means to fit the resonance signal on the complex plane. However, such circle fits can produce varied results, so to address this issue, we use a combination of simulation and experiment to determine the reliability of a fitting algorithm across a wide range of quality factor values from Qi≪Qc to Qc≪Qi. In addition, we develop a measurement protocol that can not only reduce fitting errors by factors ≳2 but also mitigates the influence of the measurement background on the fit results. This technique can be generalized for other resonance systems beyond superconducting resonators. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Hard Superconducting Gap in PbTe Nanowires

Semiconductor nanowires coupled to a superconductor provide a powerful testbed for quantum device physics such as Majorana zero modes and gate-tunable hybrid qubits. The performance of these quantum devices heavily relies on the quality of the induced superconducting gap. A hard gap, evident as vanishing subgap conductance in tunneling spectroscopy, is both necessary and desired. A hard gap has been achieved and extensively studied before in III–V semiconductor nanowires (InAs and InSb). In this study, we present the observation of a hard superconducting gap in PbTe nanowires coupled to a superconductor Pb. The gap size Δ is ∼ 1 meV (maximally 1.3 meV in one device). Additionally, subgap Andreev bound states can also be created and controlled through gate tuning. Tuning a device into the open regime can reveal Andreev enhancement of the subgap conductance. These results pave the way for diverse superconducting quantum devices based on PbTe nanowires.

SimuQ: A Framework for Programming Quantum Hamiltonian Simulation with Analog Compilation

Quantum Hamiltonian simulation, which simulates the evolution of quantum systems and probes quantum phenomena, is one of the most promising applications of quantum computing. Recent experimental results suggest that Hamiltonian-oriented analog quantum simulation would be advantageous over circuit-oriented digital quantum simulation in the Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) machine era. However, programming analog quantum simulators is much more challenging due to the lack of a unified interface between hardware and software. In this paper, we design and implement SimuQ, the first framework for quantum Hamiltonian simulation that supports Hamiltonian programming and pulse-level compilation to heterogeneous analog quantum simulators. Specifically, in SimuQ, front-end users specify the target quantum system with Hamiltonian Modeling Language, and the Hamiltonian-level programmability of analog quantum simulators is specified through a new abstraction called the abstract analog instruction set (AAIS) and programmed in AAIS Specification Language by hardware providers. Through a solver-based compilation, SimuQ generates executable pulse schedules for real devices to simulate the evolution of desired quantum systems, which is demonstrated on superconducting (IBM), neutral-atom (QuEra), and trapped-ion (IonQ) quantum devices. Moreover, we demonstrate the advantages of exposing the Hamiltonian-level programmability of devices with native operations or interaction-based gates and establish a small benchmark of quantum simulation to evaluate SimuQ's compiler with the above analog quantum simulators.

Superconducting Qubit Based on Twisted Cuprate Van der Waals Heterostructures.

Van-der-Waals assembly enables the fabrication of novel Josephson junctions featuring an atomically sharp interface between two exfoliated and relatively twisted Bi_{2}Sr_{2}CaCu_{2}O_{8+x} (Bi2212) flakes. In a range of twist angles around 45°, the junction provides a regime where the interlayer two-Cooper pair tunneling dominates the current-phase relation. Here we propose employing this novel junction to realize a capacitively shunted qubit that we call flowermon. The d-wave nature of the order parameter endows the flowermon with inherent protection against charge-noise-induced relaxation and quasiparticle-induced dissipation. This inherently protected qubit paves the way to a new class of high-coherence hybrid superconducting quantum devices based on unconventional superconductors.

Quafu-Qcover: Explore combinatorial optimization problems on cloud-based quantum computers

We introduce Quafu-Qcover, an open-source cloud-based software package developed for solving combinatorial optimization problems using quantum simulators and hardware backends. Quafu-Qcover provides a standardized and comprehensive workflow that utilizes the quantum approximate optimization algorithm (QAOA). It facilitates the automatic conversion of the original problem into a quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO) model and its corresponding Ising model, which can be subsequently transformed into a weight graph. The core of Qcover relies on a graph decomposition-based classical algorithm, which efficiently derives the optimal parameters for the shallow QAOA circuit. Quafu-Qcover incorporates a dedicated compiler capable of translating QAOA circuits into physical quantum circuits that can be executed on Quafu cloud quantum computers. Compared to a general-purpose compiler, our compiler demonstrates the ability to generate shorter circuit depths, while also exhibiting superior speed performance. Additionally, the Qcover compiler has the capability to dynamically create a library of qubits coupling substructures in real-time, utilizing the most recent calibration data from the superconducting quantum devices. This ensures that computational tasks can be assigned to connected physical qubits with the highest fidelity. The Quafu-Qcover allows us to retrieve quantum computing sampling results using a task ID at any time, enabling asynchronous processing. Moreover, it incorporates modules for results preprocessing and visualization, facilitating an intuitive display of solutions for combinatorial optimization problems. We hope that Quafu-Qcover can serve as an instructive illustration for how to explore application problems on the Quafu cloud quantum computers.

Quantum Computing Research at the National Metrology Institute

With a wide range of promising applications arising from unprecedented computing performance, quantum computing has recently received great attention. This technology that relies on quantum superposition and quantum entanglement can be realized in various physical platforms such as superconducting quantum devices, optical systems, semiconductor nanostructures and neutral atoms and so on. The Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS), the national metrology institute of Korea, is actively carrying out research on quantum computing technologies with its extensive experience and expertise obtained from the development of measurement standards and precision measurement technologies based on diverse physical systems. In this article, we briefly discuss quantum computing research activities at KRISS.