Superconducting Gravimeter Research Articles

Monitoring CO2 Injection at the Tomakomai Field Using High-sensitivity Continuous Gravimetry

Click At the Tomakomai CCS test site, baseline measurements was started using a superconducting gravimeter (SG) in March 2015. The observation site located approximately 50m from the seashore. This is the closest installation of any SG to the sea in the world. Despite the large amplitude of high frequency noise, the quality of the long period signal appeared to be good. Generally the quality of the baseline data at the site appeared to be good in spite of the severe conditions which often occur at seashore.

Landscape-scale water balance monitoring with an iGrav superconducting gravimeter in a field enclosure

Abstract. In spite of the fundamental role of the landscape water balance for the Earth's water and energy cycles, monitoring the water balance and its components beyond the point scale is notoriously difficult due to the multitude of flow and storage processes and their spatial heterogeneity. Here, we present the first field deployment of an iGrav superconducting gravimeter (SG) in a minimized enclosure for long-term integrative monitoring of water storage changes. Results of the field SG on a grassland site under wet–temperate climate conditions were compared to data provided by a nearby SG located in the controlled environment of an observatory building. The field system proves to provide gravity time series that are similarly precise as those of the observatory SG. At the same time, the field SG is more sensitive to hydrological variations than the observatory SG. We demonstrate that the gravity variations observed by the field setup are almost independent of the depth below the terrain surface where water storage changes occur (contrary to SGs in buildings), and thus the field SG system directly observes the total water storage change, i.e., the water balance, in its surroundings in an integrative way. We provide a framework to single out the water balance components actual evapotranspiration and lateral subsurface discharge from the gravity time series on annual to daily timescales. With about 99 and 85 % of the gravity signal due to local water storage changes originating within a radius of 4000 and 200 m around the instrument, respectively, this setup paves the road towards gravimetry as a continuous hydrological field-monitoring technique at the landscape scale.

Scintrex CG5 used for superconducting gravimeter calibration

The scale factor accuracy of superconducting gravimeters (SG) can be largely improved by a high repetition rate of calibration experiments. At stations where the availability of absolute gravimeters is limited, carefully calibrated spring gravimeters can be used for providing the reference signal assuming the irregular drift is properly adjusted. The temporal stability of the SG scale factor is assessable by comparing the temporal variations of M2 tidal parameters observed at neighboring SG sites or from synthetic tide models. Combining these methods reduces the SG scale factor error to a few 0.1‰. The paper addresses the particular procedure required for evaluating the calibration experiments based on spring gravimeters and presents results obtained at Conrad observatory (Austria). Comparing the M2 amplitude factor modulation helped to reveal a SG scale factor offset of about 0.2‰ due to re-installation.

The Improved Hydrological Gravity Model for Moxa Observatory, Germany

The gravity variations observed by the superconducting gravimeter (SG) CD-034 at Moxa Geodynamic Observatory/Germany were compared with the GRACE results some years ago. The combination of a local hydrological model of a catchment area with a 3D-gravimetric model had been applied successfully for correcting the SG record of Moxa which is especially necessary due to the strong topography nearest to the SG location. Now, the models have been corrected and improved considerably by inserting several details in the very near surrounding. Mainly these are: the observatory building is inserted with the roof covered by a soil layer above the gravity sensor where humidity is varying, snow is placed on top of the roof and on topography (steep slope), and ground water is taken into account, additionally. The result is that the comparison of the corrected gravity residuals with gravity variations of the satellite mission GRACE, now using RL5 data, shows higher agreement, not only in amplitude but also the formerly apparent phase shift is obviously not realistic. The agreement between terrestrial gravity variations (SG) and the GRACE data is improved considerably which is discussed widely.

INVESTIGATION OF THE SOLID EARTH TIDE BASED ON GPS OBSERVATION AND SUPERCONDUCTING GRAVIMETER DATA

<p class="Abstract"><em>According to Zheng (2006), vertical displacement caused by the solid earth tide often reaches in range 20 cm, and can exceed 30 cm in some stations. To measure solid earth tide we can use satellite system or sensitive gravimeters (Ito et al., 2009). This paper aims to investigate solid earth tide based on Global Positioning System (GPS) data compare with Superconducting Gravimeter (SG) data and solid earth tide global model. Processing GPS data using Kinematic Precise Point Positioning (KPPP) method within a year data from 1<sup>st</sup> January – 31<sup>st</sup> December 2011. We use BAKO GPS Permanent station data and Cibinong SG Station data. The location of BAKO station is close to Cibinong SG station, which is about 50 meters. </em><em>The result of this paper are solid earth tide which is derived from both devices have the same pattern, and it is dominated by semi-diurnal components. Applicability global models with SG observations has smaller residue with standard deviation is </em><em>0.0031</em><em> mgal, this result is equivalent with </em><em>0.0098</em><em> meter</em><em>. Comparison between the results of GPS observations to global models which have a standard deviation residue for vertical component is </em><em>0.0360 meters</em><em>.</em><em></em></p>

Assessing the precision of the iGrav superconducting gravimeter for hydrological models and karstic hydrological process identification

In this paper we present the potential of a new compact superconducting gravimeter (GWR iGrav) designed for groundwater monitoring. At first, 3 yr of continuous gravity data are evaluated and the performance of the instrument is investigated. With repeated absolute gravity measurements using a Micro-g Lacoste FG5, the calibration factor (−894.8 nm s−2 V−1) and the long-term drift of this instrument (45 nm s−2 yr−1) are estimated for the first time with a high precision and found to be respectively constant and linear for this particular iGrav. The low noise level performance is found similar to those of previous superconducting gravimeters and leads to gravity residuals coherent with local hydrology. The iGrav is located in a fully instrumented hydrogeophysical observatory on the Durzon karstic basin (Larzac plateau, south of France). Rain gauges and a flux tower (evapo-transpiration measurements) are used to evaluate the groundwater mass balance at the local scale. Water mass balance demonstrates that the karst is only capacitive: all the rainwater is temporarily stored in the matrix and fast transfers to the spring through fractures are insignificant in this area. Moreover, the upper part of the karst around the observatory appears to be representative of slow transfer of the whole catchment. Indeed, slow transfer estimated on the site fully supports the low-flow discharge at the only spring which represents all groundwater outflows from the catchment. In the last part of the paper, reservoir models are used to characterize the water transfer and storage processes. Particular highlights are done on the advantages of continuous gravity data (compared to repeated campaigns) and on the importance of local accurate meteorological data to limit misinterpretation of the gravity observations. The results are complementary with previous studies at the basin scale and show a clear potential for continuous gravity time-series assimilation in hydrological simulations, even on heterogeneous karstic systems.

Earth's core and inner-core resonances from analysis of VLBI nutation and superconducting gravimeter data

Geophysical parameters of the deep Earth’s interior can be evaluated through the resonance effects associated with the core and inner-core wobbles on the forced nutations of the Earth’s figure axis, as observed by very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), or on the diurnal tidal waves, retrieved from the time-varying surface gravity recorded by superconducting gravime- ters (SGs). In this paper, we inverse for the rotational mode parameters from both techniques to retrieve geophysical parameters of the deep Earth. We analyse surface gravity data from 15 SG stations and VLBI delays accumulated over the last 35 yr. We show existing correlations between several basic Earth parameters and then decide to inverse for the rotational modes parameters. We employ a Bayesian inversion based on the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm with a Markov-chain Monte Carlo method. We obtain estimates of the free core nutation resonant period and quality factor that are consistent for both techniques. We also attempt an inversion for the free inner-core nutation (FICN) resonant period from gravity data. The most probable solution gives a period close to the annual prograde term (or S1 tide). However the 95 per cent confidence interval extends the possible values between roughly 28 and 725 d for gravity, and from 362 to 414 d from nutation data, depending on the prior bounds. The precisions of the estimated long-period nutation and respective small diurnal tidal constituents are hence not accurate enough for a correct determination of the FICN complex frequency.

Estimation of local water storage change by space- and ground-based gravimetry

We estimated local water storage change by combining space- and ground-based gravimetry in this paper. The gravity change from GRACE was first divided into local and global parts according to potential theory. We then subtracted the GRACE-derived global field from ground gravimeter results to obtain local gravity change which is directly induced by the local water storage. Finally we inferred the local water storage change. We used superconducting gravimeter (SG) data recorded from June 2008 to June 2012 at Wuhan station and GRACE satellite gravimetric data to estimate the local water storage change. To validate the inferred local water storage change, the water table records of a well which is several meters away from SG station were compared. Furthermore, the equivalent water heights from hydrological models and GRACE were used also for comparisons. The comparisons show that the results from combining SG and GRACE data are better than those from either GRACE data alone or hydrological models, which demonstrates the efficiency of the combination method to derive local water storage.

Latitude dependence of amplitude factor δ for degree 2 tides

The study updates the theory of tides by specifying latitude dependence of the gravimetric factor (amplitude factor δ) for diurnal and semidiurnal tidal waves in the oceanless elastic Earth. The strain of an elastic flattened gravitating sphere with latitude-dependent geopotential, density, and Lamé constants is described by a system of sixth-order ordinary differential equations. The elliptical sphere is presented as consisting of layers, with density and elasticity varying as a function of latitude along the sphere surface as mean radiuses of equidensity and equielasticity ellipsoids that cross this surface. Dissipation is taken into account as a logarithmic creep function. Integration of the derived equations allows avoiding the use of approximate methods. The predicted δ factors for degree 2 tides depend on latitude and increase from the equator to the pole by 0.12 to 0.18% for different Earth models. The obtained latitude dependences are compared with superconducting gravimeter (SG) data after including effects associated with the inertial and Coriolis forces, as well as dynamic resonance. The theoretical predictions and the observations show good fit, to hundredths of percent. The average δ factors predicted in this study for the PREM model are intermediate between those computed with the hydrostatic and nonhydrostatic tidal gravity models of Dehant, Defraigne, and Wahr (DDW/H and DDW/NH), while the estimates obtained with reference to the IASP91 model coincide with the DDW/NH results to the fifth decimal digit.

First analyses of the iOSG-type superconducting gravimeter at the low noise underground laboratory (LSBB URL) of Rustrel, France

In the last few years, the performance of the cryogenic gravity instruments has been further improved by the development of a new generation of superconducting gravimeter (SG): the so-called iOSG which is a superconducting gravimeter designed for observatory purpose with a heavier sphere than previous SGs. The first iOSG (iOSG-024) has been installed in July 2015 at the LSSB low background noise underground research laboratory in Rustrel (France), funded by the EQUIPEX MIGA (Matter wave-laser based Interferometer Gravitation Antenna) project and by the European FEDER 2006-2013 PFM LSBB – Developpement des qualites environnementales du LSBB . This instrument is operational since September 2015. We present the first tidal analyses of the 7-month time-varying gravity records of this newly installed instrument as well as the calibration results performed by parallel FG5 absolute gravity measurements. We also show the performances of iOSG-024 in terms of noise levels in the seismic (in the millihertz frequency range) band using a standardized procedure based on the computation of the residual power spectral densities over a quiet time period. The obtained noise levels are compared with other SG sites and with seismological reference noise models. The combination of the instrumental performance of the iOSG with the LSBB site properties makes this gravimetric station one of the quietest in the world, comparable to the lower sensor of the OSG-56 at BFO, at seismic frequencies.

Terrestrial Gravity Fluctuations.

Different forms of fluctuations of the terrestrial gravity field are observed by gravity experiments. For example, atmospheric pressure fluctuations generate a gravity-noise foreground in measurements with super-conducting gravimeters. Gravity changes caused by high-magnitude earthquakes have been detected with the satellite gravity experiment GRACE, and we expect high-frequency terrestrial gravity fluctuations produced by ambient seismic fields to limit the sensitivity of ground-based gravitational-wave (GW) detectors. Accordingly, terrestrial gravity fluctuations are considered noise and signal depending on the experiment. Here, we will focus on ground-based gravimetry. This field is rapidly progressing through the development of GW detectors. The technology is pushed to its current limits in the advanced generation of the LIGO and Virgo detectors, targeting gravity strain sensitivities better than 10−23 Hz−1/2 above a few tens of a Hz. Alternative designs for GW detectors evolving from traditional gravity gradiometers such as torsion bars, atom interferometers, and superconducting gradiometers are currently being developed to extend the detection band to frequencies below 1 Hz. The goal of this article is to provide the analytical framework to describe terrestrial gravity perturbations in these experiments. Models of terrestrial gravity perturbations related to seismic fields, atmospheric disturbances, and vibrating, rotating or moving objects, are derived and analyzed. The models are then used to evaluate passive and active gravity noise mitigation strategies in GW detectors, or alternatively, to describe their potential use in geophysics. The article reviews the current state of the field, and also presents new analyses especially with respect to the impact of seismic scattering on gravity perturbations, active gravity noise cancellation, and time-domain models of gravity perturbations from atmospheric and seismic point sources. Our understanding of terrestrial gravity fluctuations will have great impact on the future development of GW detectors and high-precision gravimetry in general, and many open questions need to be answered still as emphasized in this article.

The Slichter mode of the Earth: Revisit with optimal stacking and autoregressive methods on full superconducting gravimeter data set

AbstractThe Slichter mode is the triplet oscillational mode of the 3‐D translation of the Earth's solid inner core; despite much effort it has so far eluded observation. Here we revisit the search by applying new data processing methods upon the latest set of available superconducting gravimeter (SG) data. The new methods are the AR‐z spectrum that is sensitive in detecting weak harmonic signals, and the OSE data stacking scheme proven to be effective in identifying seismic normal mode singlets. The SG data consist of 19 records from 14 worldwide stations spanning up to 15 years. We arrive at three candidate sets of frequencies for the Slichter triplet that satisfy the theoretical splitting rule, namely (3.952, 4.432, 4.908) cpd, (5.136/5.032/5.020, 5.592, 6.040) cpd, and (5.704, 6.208, 6.748) cpd, of which the first set is regarded to be the more likely. A series of synthetic experiments shows that the Slichter triplet signals with RMS received amplitude of ~0.3 nGal (10−11m/s2) can be detected to the extent of the present combination of data and methodology.

Optimized strategy for the calibration of superconducting gravimeters at the one per mille level

This paper reports on different sources of errors that occur in the calibration process of a superconducting gravimeter (SG), determined by comparison with a ballistic absolutegravimeter(AG);someofthemhaveneverbeendis- cussed in the literature. We then provide methods to mitigate the impact of those errors, to achieve a robust calibration estimate at the 1 0 /00 level. We demonstrate that a standard deviation at the level of 1 0 /00 can be reached within 48h by measuring at spring tides and by increasing the AG sampling rate. This is much shorter than what is classically reported in previous empirical studies. Measuring more than 5 days around a tidal extreme does not improve the precision in the calibration factor significantly, as the variation in the error as a function of 1/ √ N does not apply, considering the decrease in signal amplitude due to the tidal modulation. However, we investigate the precision improvement up to 120 days, which can be useful if an AG is run continuously: at mid-latitude it would require 21 days to ensure a calibration factor at the 1 0 /00 level with a 99.7 % confidence interval. We also show that restricting the AG measurement periods to tidal extrema

Feasibility analysis of searching for the Slichter triplet in superconducting gravimeter records

The search for the elusive Slichter triplet requires elaborate analysis of the elastic-gravitational mode characters and the non-stationary behavior of noisy time-series. A typical question is that it is difficult to characterize the excitations with attenuation by diffusion when their intensity is low compared to noise. Thus the theory for deriving the modes' frequencies is still controversial, and various scholars tried to search for the Slichter triplet in superconducting gravimeter (SG) records, but failed. One of the main causes might be due to the inappropriate use of datasets. We present in this paper synthetic experiments on the selection of record length, sampling rate and number of SG records under the Global Geodynamics Project (GGP) to detect the damped harmonic signals hidden in noises based on the optimal sequence estimation (OSE) method. Moreover, our results show that the existing observation conditions arouse restrictions and it might be impossible to detect the Slichter triplet excited by single excitation source based on Fourier spectrum analysis. Thus we suggest a stacking way of combining several seismic events in the case that the excitation mechanism has so far been unclear.

Search for the 531-day-period wobble signal in the polar motion based on EEMD

Abstract. In this study, we use a nonlinear and non-stationary time series analysis method, the ensemble empirical mode decomposition method (EEMD), to analyze the polar motion (PM) time series (EOP C04 series from 1962 to 2013) to find a 531-day-period wobble (531 dW) signal. The 531 dW signal has been found in the early PM series (1962–1977), but cannot be found in the recent PM series (1978–2013) using conventional analysis approaches. By virtue of the demodulation feature of EEMD, the 531 dW can be confirmed to be present in PM based on the differences of the amplitudes and phases between different intrinsic mode functions. Results from three sub-series divided from the EOP C04 series show that the period of the 531 dW is subject to variations, in the range of 530.9–524 days, and its amplitude is also time-dependent (about 2–11 mas). Synthetic tests are carried out to explain why the 531 dW can only be observed in recent 30-year PM time series after using EEMD. The 531 dW is also detected in the two longest available superconducting gravimeter (SG) records, which further confirms the presence of the 531 dW. The confirmation of the 531 dW existence could be significant in establishing a more reasonable Earth rotation model and may effectively contribute to the prediction of the PM and its mechanism interpretation.

SGNoise - a tool for the ambient noise level analysis at superconducting gravimeter stations

The SGNoise represents a web tool for the near real-time analysis of data from superconducting gravimeters (SGs). Gravity residuals are computed on daily basis from raw SG data (1-s sampling rate) and analysed/visualized in time and frequency domain. It fulfils the main goal of the SGNoise — automatic data quality control of continuously operating geophysical instruments which provides a helpful service for operators and data users. The data quality quantification is represented by the evaluation of ambient noise level at SG stations by spectral analysis of gravity residuals and its visualization through spectrograms and probability density functions. Among others, it provides a possibility for comparison of noise levels at SG stations as demonstrated for Pecný, Wettzell and Strasbourg stations which are included in the SGNoise service at http://oko.asu.cas.cz/grav/. The SGNoise program package is written in PHP5 scripting language using the GD Graphics Library. Procedures used for data processing and analysis are consistent with previous works on noise level analysis at SG stations.

Mass balance monitoring of geological CO2 storage with a superconducting gravimeter — A case study

Although monitoring of geological carbon dioxide (CO2) storage is possible with a number of geophysical and geodetic techniques (e.g., seismic survey), gravimetric monitoring is known to be the most accurate method for measuring total mass changes. Therefore, it can be used for detection of storage pore space content changes and migration of CO2 plumes. A superconducting gravimeter (SG) installed on the Earth's surface provides precise and continuous records of gravity variations over time for periods from minutes to decades, which are required for monitoring subsurface CO2 storage. Due to the fact that gravimeter records combine the gravity effects of surface displacement and subsurface mass change, these two effects must be separated properly for observing CO2 mass balance. The Newtonian attraction gravity effect of stored CO2 is modeled as a function of reservoir depth and CO2 mass for different locations of the gravimeter over the reservoir. The gravity effect of the surface deformation is considered according to the modeled and measured displacement above the CO2 reservoir at the gravimeter's position. For estimation of the detection threshold, an assessment is carried out for the gravity corrections, which must be subtracted from the raw gravity data before obtaining the gravity signal of the stored CO2. A CO2 signal larger than about 0.5μGal can be detected with an SG's continuous recordings. A measured gravity profile along the reservoir can support the continuous measurements. For providing objective evidence of a CO2 stored gravity signal, real measured raw SG gravity data of the MunGyung site in Korea were superimposed with an artificial uniformly continuous gravity signal up to 1.7μGal, representing a gravity signal from a CO2 storage site with increasing injections up to about 105kt at a depth of 600m. These data were analyzed, and the CO2 storage signal could be clearly identified.

Noise Reduction, Atmospheric Pressure Admittance Estimation and Long-Period Component Extraction in Time-Varying Gravity Signals Using Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition

Time-varying gravity signals, with their nonlinear, non-stationary and multi-scale characteristics, record the physical responses of various geodynamic processes and consist of a blend of signals with various periods and amplitudes, corresponding to numerous phenomena. Superconducting gravimeter (SG) records are processed in this study using a multi-scale analytical method and corrected for known effects to reduce noise, to study geodynamic phenomena using their gravimetric signatures. Continuous SG (GWR-C032) gravity and barometric data are decomposed into a series of intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) using the ensemble empirical mode decomposition (EEMD) method, which is proposed to alleviate some unresolved issues (the mode mixing problem and the end effect) of the empirical mode decomposition (EMD). Further analysis of the variously scaled signals is based on a dyadic filter bank of the IMFs. The results indicate that removing the high-frequency IMFs can reduce the natural and man-made noise in the data, which are caused by electronic device noise, Earth background noise and the residual effects of pre-processing. The atmospheric admittances based on frequency changes are estimated from the gravity and the atmospheric pressure IMFs in various frequency bands. These time-and frequency-dependent admittance values can be used effectively to improve the atmospheric correction. Using the EEMD method as a filter, the long-period IMFs are extracted from the SG time-varying gravity signals spanning 7 years. The resulting gravity residuals are well correlated with the gravity effect caused by the Earth's polar motion after correcting for atmospheric effects.

Comment on: ‘The quest for a consistent signal in ground and GRACE gravity time-series’, by Michel Van Camp, Olivier de Viron, Laurent Metivier, Bruno Meurers and Olivier Francis

The paper in question by Van Camp and co-authors [MVC] challenges previous work showing that ground gravity data arising from hydrology can provide a consistent signal for the comparison with satellite gravity data. The data sets used are similar to those used previously, that is, the gravity field as measured by the GRACE satellites versus ground-based data from superconducting gravimeters (SGs) over the same continental area, in this case Central Europe. One of the main impediments in this paper is the presentation that is frequently confusing and misleading as to what the data analysis really shows, for example, the irregular treatment of annual components that are first subtracted then reappear in the analysis. More importantly, we disagree on specific points. Two calculations are included in our comment to illustrate where we believe that the processing in [MVC] paper is deficient. The first deals with their erroneous treatment of the global hydrology using a truncated spherical harmonic approach which explains almost a factor 2 error in their computation of the loading. The second shows the effect of making the wrong assumption in the GRACE/hydrology/surface gravity comparison by inverting the whole of the hydrology loading for underground stations. We also challenge their claims that empirical orthogonal function techniques cannot be done in the presence of periodic components, and that SG data cannot be corrected for comparisons with GRACE data. The main conclusion of their paper, that there is little coherence between ground gravity stations and this invalidates GRACE comparisons, is therefore questionable. There is nothing in [MVC] that contradicts any of the previous papers that have shown clearly a strong relation between seasonal signals obtained from both ground gravity and GRACE satellite data.

Assessing active faulting by hydrogeological modeling and superconducting gravimetry: A case study for Hsinchu Fault, Taiwan

AbstractWe develop a new hydrology and gravimetry‐based method to assess whether or not a local fault may be active. We take advantage of an existing superconducting gravimeter (SG) station and a comprehensive groundwater network in Hsinchu to apply the method to the Hsinchu Fault (HF) across the Hsinchu Science Park, whose industrial output accounts for 10% of Taiwan's gross domestic product. The HF is suspected to pose seismic hazards to the park, but its existence and structure are not clear. The a priori geometry of the HF is translated into boundary conditions imposed in the hydrodynamic model. By varying the fault's location, depth, and including a secondary wrench fault, we construct five hydrodynamic models to estimate groundwater variations, which are evaluated by comparing groundwater levels and SG observations. The results reveal that the HF contains a low hydraulic conductivity core and significantly impacts groundwater flows in the aquifers. Imposing the fault boundary conditions leads to about 63–77% reduction in the differences between modeled and observed values (both water level and gravity). The test with fault depth shows that the HF's most recent slip occurred in the beginning of Holocene, supplying a necessary (but not sufficient) condition that the HF is currently active. A portable SG can act as a virtual borehole well for model assessment at critical locations of a suspected active fault.