Summer Solar Radiation Research Articles

Climatic and environmental changes since last deglaciation in the steppe region of northern China and their impact on early population survival patterns

The northern Chinese steppe is situated in the periphery of the East Asian Summer Monsoon and exhibits high sensitivity to variations in monsoon intensity and global climate change. Therefore, comprehending the climatic evolution history of this region is pivotal for elucidating early human civilization development. The research focuses on a fully enclosed crater lake located in the northern Chinese steppe by utilizing n-alkanes, total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) in lake sediments, based on AMS-14C dating analysis, the climatic and environmental evolution history of this region from the last deglaciation to the middle Holocene has been reconstructed, and the impact of climate change on the evolution of early human civilization is elucidated. The findings indicate that the EASM driven by summer solar radiation, exerts control over the climate and hydrology in the steppe region of northern China. Since the last deglaciation, the gradual warming and humidification of the climate environment have significantly enhanced the animal and plant resources, thereby establishing a solid foundation for the transition of early human populations in northern Chinese steppe from high-mobility hunter-gatherers to settled communities. Additionally, this climatic shift has provided an optimal backdrop for the emergence of primitive agriculture. The changes of stone tool assemblages unearthed at related sites also confirm the above views. However, the climate model underwent rapid changes during the period of 7.2–6.4 cal kyr BP, leading to the occurrence of extreme arid climate events. Consequently, regional precipitation decreased, lake ecology became imbalanced, woody plants retreated in the basin, and vegetation coverage was greatly reduced. The aforementioned factor may have played a pivotal role in the disappearance of early populations within the region. Consequently, climate and environmental change not only serve as the primary driving force behind human civilization’s development but also act as an inexorable catalyst for its decline.

Stark seasonal contrast of fine aerosol levels, composition, formation mechanism, and characteristics in a polluted megacity.

In this study, we investigated the temporal variation of organic and inorganic aerosol with its optical properties in Mumbai (India), an urban coastal region. Mean PM2.5concentrations during the sampling period were 175μg/m3 (winter) and 90μg/m3 (summer). During winter, the average concentrations of organic (OC), elemental (EC), and water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) were three times higher than in summer. Secondary organic carbon (SOC) contribution in OC was higher in summer (78%) than in winter (53%), and strong solar radiation in summer likely caused this outcome. Aerosols were slightly acidic in both seasons, with an average pH of 5.7 (winter) and 6.0 (summer). A correlation was observed between SOC and the acidity of particles in summer (R2 = 0.6), indicating some amount of acid-catalysed SOC formation. In both seasons, the sulphate oxidation ratio (SOR) was higher than the nitrate oxidation ratio (NOR), which may reflect a preference for SO2 oxidation over NO2 or the difference in partitioning ammonium nitrate into ammonium sulphate under high RH. The dominant mechanism of SOC formation (gas vs aqueous phase oxidation) also showed seasonal variation. In winter, a relatively steep reduced major axis (RMA) slope of O3/CO suggests gas phase oxidation was the dominant mechanism of SOC production. Winter has more BrC fraction than summer, indicating higher absorbing aerosols, though the efficiency of absorbing the light was higher in summer. To assess the radiative forcing of PM2.5 on a local scale, an effective carbon ratio (ECR) was computed. The findings pointed to a local radiative heating impact caused by PM2.5. The spectral slope ratio and MAE at 250 to 300nm ratio (E2/E3) revealed a higher abundance of high molecular weight species in WSOC during summer than in winter.

Multi-scale correlation analysis between geometric parameters and solar radiation in high density urban environment——Case study in Nanjing

This study explores the impact of multi-scale urban morphology on solar radiation in high-density environments, focusing on Nanjing as a case study. Using Grasshopper, the research decomposed urban models into four scales—district, block group, block, and plot—and analyzed eight morphological indicators, including site coverage (SC), floor area ratio (FAR), and block surface ratio (BSR). Solar radiation was simulated for the entire year, the summer solstice, and the winter solstice. Key findings reveal that different scales exhibit varying influences on solar radiation. At the district scale, BSR shows the highest correlation with annual solar radiation (R2 = 0.96), while at the neighborhood cluster scale, the minimum distance between buildings (DBmin) is most correlated (R2 = 0.7). At the block scale, BSR significantly correlates with summer solar radiation (R2 = 0.55). At the plot scale, no single indicator strongly correlates with solar radiation, but a combination of indicators is more relevant. These findings enable rapid solar performance assessments in urban design, promoting efficient solar energy use.

Improving passive daytime radiative cooling via incorporation of composite nanoparticles into sheath of PU-PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film

Climate change has recently caused more severe temperatures, increasing demand for personal thermal management outdoors. Radiative cooling fabrics, known for their potent cooling ability, play a crucial role in regulating the thermal balance of the human body in high-temperature environments. In this study, an innovative PU (polyurethane)-SiO2/TiO2@PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) core-sheath nanofiber film was developed by incorporating SiO2/TiO2 composite nanoparticles (STNs) into the sheath of the nanofibers through coaxial electrospinning. The PU-STNs@PVDF composite nanofiber film with thickness of ∼100 μm achieved a reflectance of 92 % in the visible to near-infrared spectral range and an emittance of 91 % within the atmospheric transparent window. The temperature of the PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film was reduced by 6.9 °C and 4.7 °C compared with that of the cotton fabric and PU-PVDF nanofiber film, respectively. Under direct solar radiation in summer, the temperature of the PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film was 7.7 °C lower than that of cotton fabric. The PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film elongated at a break of 127.5 % and a tensile strength of 4.3 MPa, implying it promising flexibility. The PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film possesses huge potential in personal thermal management.

Phytoplankton Assemblage over a 14-Year Period in the Adriatic Sea: Patterns and Trends.

Considering the role of phytoplankton in the functioning and health of marine systems, it is important to characterize its responses to a changing environment. The central Adriatic Sea, as a generally oligotrophic area, is a suitable environment to distinguish between regular fluctuations in phytoplankton and those caused by anthropogenic or climatic influences. This study provides a long-term perspective of phytoplankton assemblage in the central eastern Adriatic Sea, with 14 years of continuous time series data collected at two coastal and two offshore stations. The predominant phytoplankton groups were diatoms and phytoflagellates, but their proportion varied depending on the vicinity of the coast, as evidenced also by the distribution of chlorophyll a. In the coastal environment, the phytoplankton biomass was substantially higher, with a higher proportion of microphytoplankton, while small phytoplankton accounted for the majority of biomass in the offshore area. In addition, a decreasing trend in diatom abundance was observed in the coastal waters, while such trend was not so evident in the offshore area. Using a neural gas algorithm, five clusters were defined based on the contribution of the major groups. The observed increase in diversity, especially in dinoflagellates, which outnumber diatom taxa, could be a possible adaptation of dinoflagellates to the increased natural solar radiation in summer and the increased sea surface temperature.

Analysing the Spatio-Temporal Variations of Urban Street Summer Solar Radiation through Historical Street View Images: A Case Study of Shanghai, China

Analysing the Spatio-Temporal Variations of Urban Street Summer Solar Radiation through Historical Street View Images: A Case Study of Shanghai, China

2D temperature field analysis of asphalt pavements with three different types of subgrade structures

To explore the temperature distribution in width and depth of asphalt pavements with three different subgrade types, a numerical model is established. Based on actual meteorological data, the lateral temperature differences (LTDs) along the depth direction of pavement layers were analyzed under diurnal periodic thermal boundary conditions. Results reveal that the maximum LTD on the surface of a part-cut part-fill subgrade roadbed structure, as represented by a mountainous road, can reach 6.3 °C and 10.8 °C during winter and summer, respectively. The LTDs vary periodically with the boundary conditions. The LTDs on the road surface with high solar radiation in summer are 2.6–7.6 °C higher than those in winter. The influence ranges of the LTDs along the width direction of the road in winter and summer are 0–300 mm and 0–350 mm, respectively. This study provides a more precise method for studying the temperature field of road structures, which is helpful in analysing the pavement damage caused by thermal stress, etc. It also provides the necessary reference for the practical implementation of new technologies in the fields of asphalt pavement thermal energy storage systems and asphalt pavement temperature difference power generation.

МОДЕЛЬ ТЕПЛО-ВЕТРОВОГО РЕЖИМА НАРУЖНЫХ СТЕН ЗДАНИЙ С ЖАЛЮЗИЙНЫМ СОЛНЦЕЗАЩИТНЫМ УСТРОЙСТВОМ

The article discusses the energy efficiency of walls with louvered sun shading devices. It has been noted that louvered façade systems with a ventilated layer are an effective means of protection from solar radiation in summer. As a result of the experimental studies carried out on building models, a number of significant thermophysical regularities were noted that determine heat and wind processes in the near-wall layer of facade systems, which can rightfully be applied in the actual design, construction and operation of objects. Prerequisites and conditions have been created for the development of a universal methodology for assessing heat and wind processes, determined by geometric and physical similarity when modeling processes in the near-wall air environment in solving architectural and structural problems of various compositions. It has been established that the effectiveness of ventilation of the wall layer of air and the first unbuilt column floor is achieved by using façade louvered sun-protection devices with an angle of inclination of their lamellas of 45° - 60° to the plane of the facade during their insolation. The energy efficiency of building walls was revealed through the use of sun-protection louver devices. Prerequisites for the architectural and construction design of external walls with louvered sun-protection devices have been determined that contribute to the formation of convective flows in the wall layer of air, which can subsequently be used for heating premises, as well as for extracting exhaust air from premises by determining the location of natural supply and exhaust openings and the operating mode of windows sashes, transoms, vents.

Experimental and numerical investigation of integrating energy recovery ventilation into a thermodynamic-potential-based passive dehumidification system using renewable energy

To decrease the latent heat load of the air-conditioning system in residential buildings, we proposed a passive dehumidification and mechanical ventilation system that integrates energy recovery ventilation (ERV) into a passive dehumidification and solar collection (PDSC) system that can intelligently regulate the indoor hygrothermal environment, referred to as the PSE (PDSC & ERV) system. Field studies were conducted by monitoring the indoor temperature and humidity changes in the operating conditions using various systems. With the PSE system, the absolute humidity difference between the indoor and outdoor air was the most significant, and its ability to maintain a stable indoor relative humidity was the most remarkable compared with other systems. The PSE model had the lowest latent and total heat load compared with the exhaust-only ventilation model equipped with a standard insulated envelope without moisture adsorption and desorption function. Regression analysis showed that the higher the outdoor temperature, absolute humidity, relative humidity, and solar radiation in summer, the more significant the PSE system's latent heat load reduction effectiveness. Linear correlation between absolute humidity and energy-saving performance was the most evident, with a coefficient of determination as high as 0.98, illustrating the suitability of PSE systems for hot and humid areas.

Adaptation of the Endolithic Biome in Antarctic Volcanic Rocks.

Endolithic microorganisms, ranging from microeukaryotes to bacteria and archaea, live within the cracks and crevices of rocks. Deception Island in Antarctica constitutes an extreme environment in which endoliths face environmental threats such as intense cold, lack of light in winter, high solar radiation in summer, and heat emitted as the result of volcanic eruptions. In addition, the endolithic biome is considered the harshest one on Earth, since it suffers added threats such as dryness or lack of nutrients. Even so, samples from this hostile environment, collected at various points throughout the island, hosted diverse and numerous microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, diatoms, ciliates, flagellates and unicellular algae. These endoliths were first identified by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). To understand the molecular mechanisms of adaptation of these endoliths to their environment, genomics techniques were used, and prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms were identified by metabarcoding, sequencing the V3-V4 and V4-V5 regions of the 16S and 18S rRNA genes, respectively. Subsequently, the sequences were analyzed by bioinformatic methods that allow their metabolism to be deduced from the taxonomy. The results obtained concluded that some of these microorganisms have activated the biosynthesis routes of pigments such as prodigiosin or flavonoids. These adaptation studies also revealed that microorganisms defend themselves against environmental toxins by activating metabolic pathways for the degradation of compounds such as ethylbenzene, xylene and dioxins and for the biosynthesis of antioxidant molecules such as glutathione. Finally, these Antarctic endolithic microorganisms are of great interest in astrobiology since endolithic settings are environmentally analogous to the primitive Earth or the surfaces of extraterrestrial bodies.

Paleoenvironmental changes in the coastal zone of the northwest South China Sea during the last 13 kyr

Marine sediments in coastal zones serve as valuable archives for understanding the history of silicate chemical weathering and summer monsoon rainfall in source areas, providing insights into terrigenous climate and environmental evolution. In this study, we investigated the grain size, clay minerals, and geochemistry of sediments retrieved from core KZK01 in the coastal zone of the northwest South China Sea during the past 13 thousand years before present (kyr BP). Our findings demonstrated that the illite crystallinity index served as a reliable proxy for assessing the intensity of chemical weathering in the source area. Moreover, it distinctly recorded significant climatic events such as the Younger Dryas and Bond events during the Holocene. The dominant driver of the regional East Asian summer monsoon was identified as summer solar radiation in the Northern Hemisphere at low latitudes. Cold climate events exhibited global consistency, potentially influenced by the presence of ice sheets at high latitudes. Lastly, our records revealed a distinct transition at 9.0 kyr, highlighting significant impacts of the Qiongzhou Strait and sea level rise on regional climate dynamics.

Broad-scale factors shaping the ecological niche and geographic distribution of Spirodela polyrhiza.

The choice of appropriate independent variables to create models characterizing ecological niches of species is of critical importance in distributional ecology. This set of dimensions in which a niche is defined can inform about what factors limit the distributional potential of a species. We used a multistep approach to select relevant variables for modeling the ecological niche of the aquatic Spirodela polyrhiza, taking into account variability arising from using distinct algorithms, calibration areas, and spatial resolutions of variables. We found that, even after an initial selection of meaningful variables, the final set of variables selected based on statistical inference varied considerably depending on the combination of algorithm, calibration area, and spatial resolution used. However, variables representing extreme temperatures and dry periods were more consistently selected than others, despite the treatment used, highlighting their importance in shaping the distribution of this species. Other variables related to seasonality of solar radiation, summer solar radiation, and some soil proxies of nutrients in water, were selected commonly but not as frequently as the ones mentioned above. We suggest that these later variables are also important to understanding the distributional potential of the species, but that their effects may be less pronounced at the scale at which they are represented for the needs of this type of modeling. Our results suggest that an informed definition of an initial set of variables, a series of statistical steps for filtering and exploring these predictors, and model selection exercises that consider multiple sets of predictors, can improve determination of variables that shape the niche and distribution of the species, despite differences derived from factors related to data or modeling algorithms.

The energy saving potential of a new ventilation roof with stabilized phase change material in hot summer region

Roof is a weak part of the building envelope due to the high intensity of solar radiation in summer. Improving thermal performance of roof is crucial to reduce energy consumption. In this study, the thermal performance of a new ventilation roof with shape-stabilized phase change material (SPCM) is investigated. The dynamic heat transfer model for this roof is established by coupling the number of transfer units (NTU) heat exchange model with the resistance-capacity dynamic heat network model and used to analyse the heat transfer. The accuracy of the model is validated by experiment. The indoor air temperature, internal surface temperature of the roof, and cumulative cooling load in summer are simulated and analysed in Wuhan. The results show that PCM and night ventilation have great energy saving potential. When the 30 mm PCM is applied, the peak indoor air temperature and peak internal surface temperature decreased by 2.9 °C and 5.5 °C, respectively, and the cumulative cooling load of the building decreases by 19.2%. When night ventilation is applied (v = 3 m/s), the average latent heat utilization rate of the PCM layer increases, and the cumulative cooling load decreases by 22.9% and 37.5% compared with the PCM roof and the reference roof, respectively.

Printable Thermochromic Hydrogel‐Based Smart Window for All‐Weather Building Temperature Regulation in Diverse Climates (Adv. Mater. 20/2023)

Hydrogel Smart Windows In article number 2211716, Xiancai Jiang, Jun Fu, and co-workers report a novel thermochromic hydrogel-based smart window for all-weather building-temperature regulation in diverse climates. The hydrogel smart windows spontaneously transform from transparent to opaque upon temperature changes. The outdoor solar radiation in summer and indoor thermal radiation in winter are both regulated by the smart window to modulate the building temperature and save energy.

Temperature and Climatic Seasonality Affecting C3 Versus C4 Plants Since the Last Deglacial on the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau

AbstractThe climate reconstruction of the Tibetan Plateau, which was called the Third Pole Environment, has been a research hotspot in recent years. However, there are few studies on C3 and C4 plants evolution and it is an area of active debate on whether there are C4 plants existing on the Tibetan Plateau. In this study, the paleoclimate of the Hurleg Lake on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau is reconstructed based on n‐alkane‐induced indicators, while the C4 plant evolution history is established by compound‐specific isotope of long‐chain n‐alkanes since 14.1 cal kyr BP. The response of C4 plant evolution history to climate change on the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau demonstrated that C3 and C4 plants were sensitive to local and global climate change. Solar radiation in summer, insolation‐affected East Asian monsoon, and seasonal climate (including seasonal variation of the solar radiation, temperature, and precipitation) had significant effects on the long‐term growth of C4. On the other hand, factors such as temperature, precipitation, and other potential factors affected the detailed variation of C4 plants in a relatively short‐term. Our finding maintained the existence of C4 plants in the high‐altitude region and indicated that the abundance of C4 plants might increase significantly and the ecological pattern of vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau will change distinctly in the coming warmer climate conditions.

Assessment of solar energy potential in China using an ensemble of photovoltaic power models

Development of solar energy is one of the key solutions towards carbon neutrality in China. The output of solar energy is dependent on weather conditions and shows distinct spatiotemporal characteristics. Previous studies have explored the photovoltaic (PV) power potential in China but with single models and low-resolution radiation data. Here, we estimated the PV power potential in China for 2016–2019 using an ensemble of 11 PV models based on hourly solar radiation at the resolution of 5 km retrieved by the Himawari-8 geostationary satellite. On the national scale, the ensemble method revealed an annual average PV power potential of 242.79 kWh m−2 with the maximum in the west (especially the Tibetan Plateau) and the minimum in the southeast (especially the Sichuan Basin). The multi-model approach shows inter-model spreads of 6 %–7 % distributed uniformly in China, suggesting a robust spatial pattern predicted by these models. The seasonal variation in general shows the largest PV power generation in summer months except for Tibetan Plateau, where the peak value appears in spring because the high cloud coverage dampens the regional solar radiation in summer. On the national scale, the deseasonalized PV power potential shows a high correlation with cloud coverage (R2 = 0.71, p < 0.01) but a low correlation with aerosol optical depth (R2 = 0.08, p < 0.05). Sensitivity experiments show that national PV power potential increases by 0.55 % per 1 W m−2 increase of radiation and 0.79 % per 1 m s−1 increase of wind speed, but decreases by 0.46 % per 1 °C increase of air temperature. These sensitivities provide a solid foundation for the future projection of PV power potential in China under climate change.

Numerical study on the thermal and electrical performance of a novel MCHP PV-Trombe wall system

Most of existing photovoltaic (PV)-Trombe wall systems use a single coolant which has the drawbacks of low utilization efficiency and unreasonable heat distribution of space heating. In order to address these problems, a novel micro-channel heat pipe PV-Trombe wall system is proposed in this paper. The system uses heat pipe and Trombe wall to cool the PV collector decreasing its operating temperature and thus improving the overall efficiency. Moreover, an air-cooled condenser is used to control the thermal energy transfer in the room to improve the thermal comfort. The mathematical model of the system under different operation modes is verified to investigate the performance of the system in Lhasa, Beijing and Nanjing. The results show that: (ⅰ) during the space heating mode, the average room temperature of 20.36 °C, 19.80 °C and 20.18 °C can be reached while the daily total power generation of 0.86 kWh, 0.81 kWh, 0.72 kWh can be achieved in Lhasa, Beijing and Nanjing, respectively; (ⅱ) during the hot water mode, the water temperature in the tanks increases only by 8.08°C–12.76 °C and the total power generation is around 0.20 kWh-0.23 kWh in the three cities while the indoor temperature increases by less than 0.1 °C due to the lowest facade solar radiation in summer.

Provenance variations of the loess deposits in the East Asian monsoon boundary zone, Northeast China: Response to the variations of climate and wind regimes

Provenance studies are critical for the paleoclimatic reconstruction of loess. However, very little information is available about the provenance variations of the loess in the monsoon boundary zone, limiting our understanding of aeolian dust dynamics, the evolution of atmospheric circulation and driving mechanisms on the glacial-interglacial timescale. To this end, the integration of grain size end-member modeling, machine learning, sediment fingerprinting and wavelet transform analysis is performed for the Harbin loess in Northeast China to understand the long-term provenance variations, atmospheric circulation evolutions and forcing mechanisms. The results show the Harbin loess comprises three grain size end-members, EM1 (7.81 μm), EM2 (27.2 μm) and EM3 (54.41 μm), and they correspond to the background of atmospheric dust, the intensity of the southwesterly and of the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM), respectively, indicating the three transport dynamics of dust delivered to this region. The quantitative source reconstruction indicates that the loess experienced the dramatic source variations, characterized by an abrupt termination of the dust contribution from the Hulun Buir Sandy Land at ∼ 250 ka, and by variations in the relative contribution of the dust sources (i.e., Songnen Sandy Land, Horqin Sandy Land, Onqin Daga Sandy Land, and to a lesser extent, Hulun Buir Sandy Land) during the glacial-interglacial cycles. The comparisons between the indicators, e.g., EM2, the deep-sea oxygen isotopes and the rate of dust accumulation in the North Pacific, combined with wavelet transform analysis indicating a dramatic shift of orbital cycles from the significant 100-kyr and 41-kyr cycles to a weakened 100-kyr cycle, suggest that the weakened EAWM induced by both reduced the Northern Hemisphere ice volume and summer solar radiation, accounted for a termination of the Hulun Buir Sandy Land as the loess source. However, the change in wind regimes due to the glacial-interglacial cycles, and climate change (e.g., enhanced aridification) are the dominant forcing for the variations in the relative contribution of the dust sources to the Harbin loess.

Holocene vegetation and climate reconstructions from pollen records in the Mu Us Sandy Land, China

Knowledge of changes in vegetation and climate during the Holocene is important for improved assessments of future climate change and for mitigating climate warming. Owing to the relative difficulty in obtaining high-resolution sedimentary records and identifying pollen, few paleovegetation reconstructions are available from the Mu Us Sandy Land, China. This study analyzes a naturally-exposed fluvio-lacustrine section in the hinterland of the Mu Us Sandy Land. Based on a chronological framework constructed by AMS 14C, a pollen-based random forest model was used to quantitatively reconstruct changes in Holocene climate and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) changes. The relationships between NDVI, pollen and precipitation, as well as pollen assemblage characteristics were combined to reconstruct the evolution of the Holocene vegetation in the Mu Us Sandy Land. Our results show that the climate was cold and humid, and the dominant vegetation type was Ephedra shrub-encroached steppe between 11.2 and 8.3 ka BP; the climate reached an optimum, and vegetation evolved into Artemisia–Taraxacum-type–Thalictrum steppe from 8.3 to 2.6 ka BP; and finally, the climate gradually deteriorated and vegetation became an Artemisia–Chenopodiaceae steppe after 2.6 ka BP. In comparisons with other climate records, we found that the Mu Us Sandy Land climate optimum occurred synchronously at 8.3–2.6 ka BP, and the pattern of climate change is closely consistent with the East Asian summer monsoon. We suggest that millennial-scale Holocene climatic change in this region was mainly driven by the influences of high-latitude ice volume and summer solar radiation on the East Asian summer monsoon.

Seasonal variation in leaf area index and its impact on the shading effects of vertical green facades in subtropical areas

Vertical green facades (VGFs) are considered promising design strategies for reducing building energy consumption. The leaf area index (LAIv) has been considered a critical parameter in evaluating the thermal behaviour of VGFs. The LAIv is not static for a plant and changes over seasons. However, research on the seasonal variation of the LAIv and its impact on the shading effects of VGFs is limited. The present study addresses this research gap. First, a shading coefficient (SC) model was developed to describe the capability of VGFs to intercept solar radiation. Then, the SC and one-year LAIv variations of two deciduous plants and one evergreen plant were observed to verify the accuracy of the SC model and develop the seasonal LAIv prediction (SLP) model. Finally, the SLP model combined with local climate parameters was employed to analyse the solar heat gain on the east, south, west, and north walls with and without VGFs. The results indicated that the VGFs composed of deciduous plants could be considered a self-adjusting shading system, intercepting over 90% of incident solar radiation in summer and transmitting approximately 75% of incident solar radiation in winter.