Summer Ploughing Research Articles

Efficiency and energy use in puddling of lowland rice grown on Vertisols in Central India

Transplanting of rice seedling in puddled soil is one of the most widely used cultivation practices. The present research is aimed at determining what specific implements are needed to obtain optimal puddle bed for transplantating. Puddling experiments were carried out by the use of pair of bullocks with traditional country plough (T 1), pair of bullocks with lug wheel puddler (T 2), power tiller with rotary puddler (T 3), tractor with cage wheel and 9-tine cultivator (T 4) and tractor with cage wheel and rotavator (T 5). One summer ploughing was done at friable moisture condition (18.6% db) and then tilled soil was flooded to saturation (24 h) for preparation of puddled bed. Weeding efficiency, puddling depth, percentage increase in bulk density, puddling index, percolation rate and grain yield of paddy were studied for the above treatments. Puddling performance by different implements in comparison to the traditional animal drawn country plough (T 1) shows that there is a definite reduction in time requirement for field preparation. Increase in weeding efficiency, bulk density, grain yield and puddling index were also observed. The highest values of weeding efficiency and puddling index were found 98.6% and 79.3, respectively, for rotavator (T 5). The total time requirement for preparation of puddle field for treatment T 4 (tractor with cultivator) was found to be the lowest (9.4 h ha −1) with 67% weeding efficiency and 62.7 puddling index as compared to all other alternatives tested. Energy requirement for preparation of puddle field was found highest (2390 MJ ha −1) for rotavator (T 5) followed by T 3, T 4, T 1, and T 2 treatments.

Effect of Solarization and Nematicidal Treatment of Nursery Beds and Summer Ploughing of Main Field on Root-Knot Nematodes and Performance of Rice Crop*

The reduction in nematode population levels achieved by soil solarization and nematicides in nursery beds resulted in significantly improved health of the rice seedlings which when transplanted in the main field gave better control in treated and untreated in the main field. Application of nematicides phorate or carbofuran after soil solarization gave greater reduction in nematode infection and increased weight. However, soil solarization had the major influence. Further application of the nematicides in the solarized main field gave 53.2% higher yield over untreated control which was only 3.8% higher than that from untreated main field. Soil solarization could be a practical, feasible and environmentally safer alternative to nematicides.

Productivity and water use of rainfed pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum) as influenced by summer ploughing and in situ moisture conservation practices under semi arid conditions of north west India .

A 2 year field experiment was conducted during the rainy season of 1997 and 1998 to study the effect of 3 summer ploughing (no summer ploughing, summer ploughing and summer ploughing FYM insecticide herbicide) and 6 moisture conservation practices (uniform row sowing, paired row planting, ridge furrow, straw mulch, kaolin and straw mulch kaolin) on the productivity and water use efficiency of rainfed pearlmillet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. .emend. Stuntz]. Summer ploughing FYM insecticide herbicide gave highest grain yield (22.70 and 25.09 qlha in 1997 and 1998 respectively), which was at par with summer ploughing alone but significantly superior to no summer ploughing. Marked variation in water use efficiency, consumptive use and moisture extraction pattern by pearlmillet was observed due to summer ploughing during both the years. Straw mulch kaolin recorded highest grain yield (21.78 and 26.97 qlha), consumptive use (266.33 and 298.72 mm) and water use efficiency (9.46 and 9.03 kg grainlhalmm) in 1997 and 1998, respectively, and the lowest being by uniform row sowing. Straw mulch kaolin and straw mulch alone were at par with each other but were superior to all other treatments in terms of yield, consumptive use and water use efficiency. Key words : Summer ploughing, Moisture conservation practices, Water use efficiency, Moisture extraction pattern, Consumptive use

Effect of summer ploughing and in-situ moisture- conservation practices on growth and yield of rainfed pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum)

A field experiment was conducted during the rainy season (kharit) of 1997 and 1998 with hybrid Pusa 322 pearlmillet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. emend. Stuntz]. The treatments comprised 3 summer ploughing (no summer ploughing, summer ploughing, summer ploughing t FYM t herbicidet insecticide) and 6 in- . situ moisture-conservation methods (uniform row sowing, paired row sowing, ridge and furrow sowing, organic mulch, kaolin spray and mulch t kaolin). Significant increase in growth and yield of pearlmillet was observed owing to , summer ploughing and the maximum grain yield was recorded under summer ploughing + FYM + herbicide t lnsectlclde (22.70 and 25.09 q/ha in 1997 and 1998 respectlvely), Straw mulch + kaolln spray was found on a par with straw mulch alone and kaolln spray alone for graln yleld durlng both the years. The Increase In graln yleld of pearlmillet owlng to straw mulch+ kaolln epray was 9.93 and 10,33 qlha over unlform row eowlng and 7.34 and 6,02 qlha over rldge and furrow eowlng In 1997 and 1998 respectlvely. Growth and yleld-attrlbutlng characters showed elmllar trend, The eoll-moleture depletion pattern was Influenced by summer ploughing and moleture-coneewatlon treatments only .during 1998, lrrespectlve of the treatment applled, maxlmum sol1 molsture was depleted from top 0-30 cm sol1 layer and the lowest belng from 60-90 cm sol1 layer.

Effect of integrated nutrient management on productivity, nutrient uptake and moisture-use functions of pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucurn)

A field experiment was conducted at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, during the rainy seasons of 2000 and 2001 to study the effect of integrated nutrient management (INM) on productivity and nutri- ent uptake of pearlmillet [Penniseturn glaucurn (L.) R.Br. emend. Stuntz.] under rainfed conditions. Inoculation of seed with Azospirillum + phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) with 20 and 15 kg N and P20, resulted in signifi- cantly higher yield attributes, seed yield and NPK uptake. Further, application of 20 kg N + 15 kg P20$ha + Azospirillurn + PSB resulted in higher consumptive use of water (mm), water-use efficiency (kglha-mm) and daily rate of water use (mmlday) over other INM treatments. The seed yield and nutrient uptake increased with organic manuring in association with summer ploughing before sowing the crop. The consumptive use of water, water- use efficiency and daily rate of water use and yield attributes of pearlmillet, yield and N, P and K uptake signifi- cantly increased with different organic manures and summer ploughing before sowing of crop. The FYM @ 10 tonneslha with summer ploughi ,g before sowing of the crop registered the highest values for the above param- eters compared to other organic sources of nutrients and summer ploughing.

Integrated weed management for system productivity and economics in soybean (Glycine max)-wheat (Triticum aestivum) system

A field experiment was conducted at New Delhi during 2006-07 and 2007-08 to find out the effect of soil solar- ization, deep disking, smother crop (cowpea), glyphosate, imazethapyr and Sesbania mulch on the infestation of weeds and the productivity and profitability of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]iiwheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend. Fiori & Paol.) cropping system. Soil solarization followed by (fb) glyphosate at 1.0 kg/ha reduced the den- sity and dry weight of weeds by 85% in soybean and 65% in wheat. It, therefore, resulted in considerably higher uptake of nutrients by soybean (92.5 kg N, 11.7 kg P and 34.3 kg Wha) with concurrent lower uptake by weeds (2.6 kg N, 0.5 kg P and 3.3 kg Wha). It also recorded 61.2% higher soybean seed yield and 28% higher wheat yield compared with those of farmersi practice (one summer ploughing). Two hand weedings among rainy-season treatments proved most superior in terms of lowest density, dry weight and nutrient uptake (2.4 kg N, 0.45 kg P and 3.1 kg Wha) by weeds and highest nutrient uptake (85.5 kg N, 10.5 kg P and 38.2 kg Wha) by soybean. It re- corded 41.3% more soybean seed yield than the unweeded control, but incurred the highest cost of cultivation (Rs 26,643). On soybean-wheat system basis, soil solarization fb glyphosate at 1.0 kg /ha incurred the highest cost of cultivation (Rs 31,519), but controlled weeds effectively and recorded the highest system productivity. However, the net income (Rs 59,926) and benefit : cost ratio (2.5) were the highest in smother crop (cowpea). lmazethapyr as a follow-up treatment in the rainy season provided the highest benefit :cost ratio (1.66). Thus, soil solarization fb glyphosate at 1.0 kglha being superior in weed control and system productivity proved to be a beneficial prac- tice in soybean-wheat system, but owing to its high cost was not as economical as the smother crop.

Economic-viability of sequential cropping systems under non-saline calcareous soil of Bihar

An experiment was conducted at the CTRI Research Station, Pusa, Bihar, during 1994-95, 1996-97 and 1997-98 on sandy loam (alluvial), non-saline calcareous soil (pH 8.2) under irrigated condition. Treatments con- sisted of 12 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.)-based cropping sequences involving legumes (pulses and oil- seeds), cereals and non-legumes in the system in randomized block design with 4 replications. Total cured leaf yield, first grade outturn (high-value marketable produce) and physical leaf quality parameters in base crop of to- bacco were significantly influenced due to different sequential cropping systems. The maximum total cured leaf yield of 2,384 kglha and first-grade outturn of 1,508 kglha were recorded in sequence of sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) (GM)-tobacco-fallow (summer ploughing), followed by rice (Gryza sativa L.) -tobacco-cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] (2,301 and 1,495 kglha), sunflower (Helianrhils amuus L.)-tobacco-blackgram (Phaseolus mungo L.) (2,236 and 1,425 kglha) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)-tobacco-greengram (I? radiatus L.) (2,218 and 1,420 kglha) total cured and first-grade leaf yields respectively). The minimum Orobanche (a total root parasite) incidence in base crop tobacco was observed when tobacco was preceded or succeeded by sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Leaf-area mdex (LAI) and physical leaf quality parameters such as spangling, puckering and maturity In tobacco followed almost s~milar trend to that of tobacco leaf yields. The maximum net return (Rs 65,8321ha) was recorded in sequence sunflower-tobacco-blackgram, followed by groundnut-to- bacco-greengram (Rs 64,893/ha), soybean-tobacco-sunflower (Rs 63,702lha) and blackgram-tobacco-sor- ghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] + moth (Rs 63,5051ha) sequences. The minimum net return (Rs 53,523lha) was recorded in maize (Zea mays L.) tobacco-maize.

Effect of integrated weed management and nitrogen fertilization on the performance of rice under flood-prone lowland conditions

Field experiments were conducted at Cuttack, India during 1991–94 to study the effect of tillage, methods of crop establishment and weed control at varying levels of N fertilizer on the performance of rice under flood-prone lowland conditions (0·60 cm water depth). The loss in grain yield of direct-sown rice caused by unchecked weed growth ranged from 18·2 to 59·2% in the different years, and was greater when N fertilizer was applied and when the conventional practice of ploughing the fields just before sowing was followed. Increasing the number of tillage operations before sowing improved the crop stand, reduced weed infestation and, thereby, increased the yield significantly compared with that achieved by conventional tillage. Summer ploughing rather than conventional tillage decreased weed dry weight at harvest by 15·8–53·2% and increased grain yield by 47·4–56·3%. A pre-emergence application of thiobencarb at 2·0 kg/ha, hand weeding once at 20 days of growth and post-establishment inter-crop cultivation at 37–42 days provided effective weed control and increased yield by 32·7–34·7, 36·7 and 28·7–83·9%, respectively. The efficiency of weed control and the resulting increase in rice yield were comparatively greater under puddling than with inter-crop cultivation and herbicide application. The loss in yield due to weeds was negligible when the crop was transplanted due to the incorporation of weeds during puddling and a greater water depth in the later growth stages. Therefore, the grain yield of rice was highest with transplanting followed closely by the direct-sown crop with post-establishment inter-crop cultivation. The response of direct-sown rice to N fertilization up to 60 kg N/ha decreased with fewer ploughings when no weed control measures were adopted. However, the grain yield increased significantly with N application up to 40 kg N/ha when weeds were controlled by cultural or chemical methods. The results suggested that an integrated weed management strategy involving summer ploughing, thiobencarb application and inter-crop cultivation is essential for effective weed control in direct-sown, flood-prone, lowland rice, in order to ensure higher N-use efficiency and crop productivity.

Long-term tillage and maize monoculture effects on a tropical Alfisol in western Nigeria. II. Soil chemical properties

Intensive monocropping of maize is widely practised in densely populated regions of west Africa. A wide range of tillage systems are used for seedbed preparation without the benefits of research information from long-term experiments relating tillage method to soil properties. Soil chemical effects of eight tillage and residue management treatments were studied for 8 years or 16 consecutive maize monoculture crops for a western Nigerian soil with a coarse-textured surface horizon. Treatments established on a newly cleared land were: (1) notill ± crop residue mulch, (2) notill ± chiselling in the row zone at 50 cm depth, (3) mouldboard ploughing ± harrowing, (4) disc ploughing ± rotovation, (5) notill − residue mulch, (6) mouldboard ploughing at the end of rains or summer ploughing, (7) mouldboard ploughing ± residue mulch, and (8) mouldboard ploughing and harrowing ± ridging or ridge till. Soil chemical properties of the 0–5-cm and 5–10-cm depths were measured during the dry season every year beginning with base line characterization soon after land clearing in 1980. Soil pH declined with cultivation duration from 6.6 in 1981 to 5.4 in 1987 for the 0–5-cm depth, and from 6.5 in 1981 to 5.5 in 1987 for the 5–10-cm depth. Mean soil pH for the 0–5-cm depth declined from 6.7 to 5.6 in notill ± residue mulch, and from 6.7 to 5.4 with mouldboard ploughing. Soil content of Bray P increased with cultivation duration due to application of phosphatic fertilizers. There occurred a significant decrease in soil organic carbon (SOC) and total soil nitrogen (TSN), and an increase in C:N ratio with cultivation duration. Mean SOC content in 1987 of the 0–5-cm depth was 13.9 g kg −1 for the notill treatment compared with 11.0 g kg −1 for the plough-based methods. Soil concentration of Ca and Mg and total cation exchange capacity (CEC) increased with cultivation duration. Maize grain yield was significantly correlated with SOC, exchangeable Ca 2+, and CEC. Continuous cropping decreased soil chemical quality, and the rate of decreases was more with plough-based than notill methods.

Long-term tillage and maize monoculture effects on a tropical Alfisol in western Nigeria. I. Crop yield and soil physical properties

A wide range of tillage methods (e.g. mouldboard ploughing, discing, harrowing, chiselling, notill, ridge till, and their combinations) are used for continuous maize ( Zea mays L.) cropping in western Nigeria without the benefits of experimental data on their comparative effects on soil properties and crop response. Therefore, the main objective of this experiment was to evaluate the impact of a range of tillage methods and continuous maize culture on grain and stover yields and degradative effects on soil properties. Tillage-induced changes in soil physical properties and maize yields were studied for 8 consecutive years from 1980 through 1987. Two crops were grown every year in the two rainy seasons. Season 1 lasted from April through July and Season 2 from August to November. The eight tillage treatments studied were: (1) notill + residue mulch, (2) notill + chiselling in the row zone to 50 cm depth, (3) mouldboard ploughing + harrowing, (4) disc ploughing + rotovation, (5) notill — residue mulch, (6) mouldboard ploughing at the end of rains or summer ploughing, (7) mouldboard ploughing and harrowing + residue mulch, (8) mouldboard ploughing and harrowing + ridging or ridge till. The experiment was established on a newly cleared land that had been under fallow (native vegetation regrowth) for about 6 years. With some exceptions, soil physical properties were measured in the dry season from 1980 through 1987, year by year. Maize grain yield was significantly affected by tillage treatments in 3 of 8 years only in Season 1. Notill + residue mulch produced the highest yield in both seasons. In addition, ploughing + residue mulch produced high yield in the first season only. Mean maize grain yield (averaged for 8 years) was 3.1 Mg ha −1 in the first season compared with 1.4 Mg ha −1 in the second. Maize grain yield in the first season increased from 2.3 mg ha −1 in 1980 to 4.4 Mg ha −1 in 1984 and then progressively declined to 1.6 Mg ha −1 in 1987. In the second season, grain yield was highly variable and depended on the rainfall amount and distribution. Complete crop failure occurred in Season 2 of 1983. The highest seasonal yield of 2.5 Mg ha −1 was in 1984, and yield progressively declined to 0.6 Mg ha −1 in 1987. Tillage treatments had no effect on soil bulk density of the surface 0 to 10 cm depth which progressively increased with cultivation duration. After 8 years, sand content was significantly lower and clay content significantly higher in the surface 0–10-cm layer of notill + mulch compared with plough-based and unmulched treatments. Equilibrium infiltration rate was rapid in all treatments, but significantly higher in notill compared with ridged treatment. Maize monocropping had drastic adverse effects on soil quality and crop yield. Adverse effects were more drastic in plough-based systems — residue mulch than with the notill system + residue mulch.

Management of purple blotch, Alternaria porri (Ell.) Cif., of onion by summer ploughing and alteration of date of sowing

Summary Management of onion purple blotch, Alternaria porri (Ell.) Cif., was attempted by cultural practices. Three summer ploughings (on 30th May, 15th June, 30th June) reduced the disease severity by 72%, together with 24.4–39.8% higher bulb yield, over unploughed plots. Early sown crop (5th and 15th Sept.) had lower disease index and significantly higher bulb yield, compared to the crop sown later than 15th of September.

Control of grass grub (Costelytra zealandica) by cultivation in spring or summer

Abstract Spring or summer ploughing followed by discing or rotary hoeing gave control of grass grub [Costelytra zealandica (White) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)] estimated to be between 41 and 96%. The effectiveness of ploughing was not increased by further cultivation. Pupae were apparently more easily killed than mature or immature larvae and beetles but, because the best control was obtained by ploughing before the highest number of pupae were present, it is probable that prepupae were more affected than pupae.

Summer ploughing for rice crop in the Tambraparni Basin

A trial was laid out in the year 1957-58 with the local ryots' practice of ploughing the fields repeatedly during summer till a fine tilth was obtained and broadcasting kar varieties, and the dopart- mental recommendation of puddling the field after receipt of water in the irrigation systom and transplanting as the two treatmonts. The resulta indicated that either the "ryots' mothod" or the "departmental method" had no advantago over the other.