Stable Sulfur Isotope Ratios Research Articles

Conformity in diversity? Isotopic investigations of infant feeding practices in two iron age populations from Southern Öland, Sweden

This article presents the results of a study of infant diet at two Iron Age sites on the island of Öland, Sweden. The cemetery at Bjärby contained a large number of subadults who had survived the earliest years of life, whereas most individuals at Triberga had died by 6 months of age. To investigate whether differences in infant feeding could explain the different mortality rates, the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur stable isotope ratios of bone and tooth dentin collagen from the two sites were analyzed. Twenty-two samples from Triberga and 102 from Bjärby yielded data that could be included in the carbon and nitrogen analysis. Twelve samples from Triberga and 42 from Bjärby were included in the sulfur analysis. The results for carbon (δ(13) C: Triberga X = -18.8, s.d. = 1.1; Bjärby X = -19.8, s.d. = 0.4), nitrogen (δ(15) N: Triberga X = 12.9, s.d. = 1.5; Bjärby X = 13.4, s.d. = 1.4), and sulfur (δ(34) S: Triberga X = 8.1, s.d. = 1.1; Bjärby X = 5.8, s.d. = 1.3) suggest that diet was broadly similar at both sites and based on terrestrial resources. At Bjärby, females and high-status individuals consumed higher-trophic level protein than other males from early childhood onward. There was some indication that the contribution of marine resources to the diet may also have differed between the sexes at Triberga. No consistent differences in breast milk intake were observed between the two sites, but there was substantial variation at each. This variation may reflect an influence of gender and social status on infant feeding decisions.

Comparison of sample preparation methods for stable isotope analysis of dissolved sulphate in forested watersheds

Pretreatment methods for measuring stable sulphur (δ34S) and oxygen (δ18O) isotope ratios of dissolved sulphate from watersheds have evolved throughout the last few decades. The current study evaluated if there are differences in the measured stable S and O isotope values of dissolved sulphate from forested watersheds when pretreated using three different methods: Method 1 (M1): adsorb sulphate on anion exchange resins and send directly to isotope facility; Method 2 (M2): adsorb sulphate on anion exchange resins, extract sulphate from anion exchange resins, and send the produced BaSO4 to the isotope facility; and Method 3 (M3): directly precipitate BaSO4 without anion exchange resins with the precipitates being sent to the isotope facility. We found an excellent agreement of the δ34Ssulphate values among all the three methods. However, some differences were observed in the δ18Osulphate values (M1 versus M2:−1.5 ‰; M1 versus M3:−1.2 ‰) associated with possible O contamination before isotope measurement. Several approaches are recommended to improve the pretreatment procedures for δ18Osulphate analysis.

Stable sulfur and oxygen isotope ratios of the Świętokrzyski National Park spring waters generated by natural and anthropogenic factors (south-central Poland)

Abstract This paper presents the results of an isotopic study of spring waters in Świetokrzyski (Holy Cross Mountain) National Park (ŚNP), south-central Poland. The δ 34 S V-CDT and δ 18 O V-SMOW of soluble sulfates ( n = 40) varied from 0.5‰ to 18.1‰ and from 3.5‰ to 12.2‰, respectively. The average δ 34 S values are closely similar to those of rainwater, soils and rocks (comprising scattered pyrite). This suggests that soluble sulfates in the springs originated from mixing of recent and historic deposition, sulfates derived from pyrite oxidation, and CS-mineralization in soils and debris. An additional anthropogenic sulfur input (inorganic fertilizer) occurs in the water of spring S-61 located in the Świetokrzyski National Park buffer zone. The δ 18 O V-SMOW of spring waters ( n = 4) were in the range of −10.6‰ to −10.2‰ indicating that they are derived from vadose groundwater in ŚNP. This was the first isotope study of spring waters in the national parks of Poland. It enabled the determination of sulfur pathways and discrimination between natural and anthropogenic sources of this element in a relatively pristine area.

Sulfur stable isotope signature identifies the source of reduced sulfur in benthic communities in macrophyte zones of Lake Biwa, Japan

Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur stable isotope ratios (δ13C, δ15N and δ34S) were measured from water column sulfate, sediments, particulate organic matter (POM), macrophytes, periphyton, macroinvertebrates and fish, sampled from the littoral, open water and macrophyte zones of Lake Biwa. In most of the littoral zones, the δ13C and δ15N values of organisms indicated that POM and periphyton support the consumers. However, in the dysoxic interior macrophyte (IM) zone, the δ13C values of Sinotaia quadrata histrica, Propsilocerus akamusi and Anodonta woodiana were lower than that of all resources. The δ15N values of S. quadrata histrica were lower than those of P. akamusi and A. woodiana. δ13C and δ15N values thus failed to distinguish the foods of these consumers. The δ34S values of sediment and S. quadrata histrica were lower than those of water column sulfate, suggesting that this consumer incorporated reduced sulfur derived from sulfate reduction in the sediment by ingesting detritus. In contrast, the δ34S values of P. akamusi and A. woodiana were higher than that of S. quadrata histrica, suggesting that they incorporated sulfur derived from water column sulfate by ingesting POM. Consequently, δ13C, δ15N and δ34S signatures provide complementary estimates of foods for consumers in this freshwater lake.

Backtracking the movements of a migratory bird: a case study of a white‐fronted goose (Anser albifrons)

The occurrence of avian influenza has brought attention to migrating birds and their migratory routes as possible carriers and gates, respectively, of the pathogenic influenza virus. There is a need to verify migration routes and to back-track the migration routes of infected animals. Stable isotope analysis of bird feathers is a valuable tool for studying the migratory pattern of birds, by gaining information about the environmental conditions during the growth of the feathers. Ideally, if different feathers that have grown during different periods are investigated, not only can information about the molting region be extracted, but also some clues can be obtained about stop-overs during the migration of individual animals, enabling the reconstruction of the pathway. In the presented case study the hydrogen, carbon nitrogen and sulfur stable isotope ratios of different types of feathers (primaries, down feathers and blood pinfeathers) from one white-fronted goose specimen have been determined. These ratios differ significantly for some elements. By taking into account the different time of growth of the respective feathers, the isotope data can be interpreted with respect to the animal migration route from the summer (and molting) to the wintering region. This is the first paper to attempt to map the migration pathway using different types of feather from a single individual.

Massive dominance of Epsilonproteobacteria in formation waters from a Canadian oil sands reservoir containing severely biodegraded oil

SummaryThe subsurface microbiology of an Athabasca oil sands reservoir in western Canada containing severely biodegraded oil was investigated by combining 16S rRNA gene- and polar lipid-based analyses of reservoir formation water with geochemical analyses of the crude oil and formation water. Biomass was filtered from formation water, DNA was extracted using two different methods, and 16S rRNA gene fragments were amplified with several different primer pairs prior to cloning and sequencing or community fingerprinting by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Similar results were obtained irrespective of the DNA extraction method or primers used. Archaeal libraries were dominated by Methanomicrobiales (410 of 414 total sequences formed a dominant phylotype affiliated with a Methanoregula sp.), consistent with the proposed dominant role of CO2-reducing methanogens in crude oil biodegradation. In two bacterial 16S rRNA clone libraries generated with different primer pairs, > 99% and 100% of the sequences were affiliated with Epsilonproteobacteria (n = 382 and 72 total clones respectively). This massive dominance of Epsilonproteobacteria sequences was again obtained in a third library (99% of sequences; n = 96 clones) using a third universal bacterial primer pair (inosine-341f and 1492r). Sequencing of bands from DGGE profiles and intact polar lipid analyses were in accordance with the bacterial clone library results. Epsilonproteobacterial OTUs were affiliated with Sulfuricurvum, Arcobacter and Sulfurospirillum spp. detected in other oil field habitats. The dominant organism revealed by the bacterial libraries (87% of all sequences) is a close relative of Sulfuricurvum kujiense – an organism capable of oxidizing reduced sulfur compounds in crude oil. Geochemical analysis of organic extracts from bitumen at different reservoir depths down to the oil water transition zone of these oil sands indicated active biodegradation of dibenzothiophenes, and stable sulfur isotope ratios for elemental sulfur and sulfate in formation waters were indicative of anaerobic oxidation of sulfur compounds. Microbial desulfurization of crude oil may be an important metabolism for Epsilonproteobacteria indigenous to oil reservoirs with elevated sulfur content and may explain their prevalence in formation waters from highly biodegraded petroleum systems.

Sulphur isotopes in animal hair track distance to sea

Stable sulphur isotope ratios ((34)S/(32)S) in animal tissues have been suggested as a tracer of coastal residency of terrestrial animals, but data are lacking that quantify the inland range of the sulphur coastal signal and the effects of seasonality. Here, we present δ(34)S measurements of sheep wool collected seasonally on eight farms across Ireland and wool samples collected opportunistically along the west and east coasts. We observed large (>10‰) δ(34)S differences across the island and we show that wool δ(34)S values were negatively correlated with distance to the west coast. We propose that this is due to the predominantly (south-)westerly airflow, possibly combined with the influence of anthropogenic sulphur deposited from the east. While essentially all the sulphur contained in west-coast wool is of marine origin, relatively high δ(34)S values were still measured >100 km inland, suggesting that marine sulphur can be carried over long distances. Seasonal variations are small at the individual level for sedentary grazing animals. We conclude that sulphur isotopes ratios measured in archival keratinous tissues can be used to describe regional δ(34)S isoscapes primarily defined by distance to coasts and thus provide a tool to detect short-term movements of domestic, feral and wild animals within such isoscapes.

Sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen stable isotope ratios in soft tissues and trophic relationships of fish from the near-shore waters of the peter the great bay in the Sea of Japan

Stable isotope ratios of sulfur (34S/32S), carbon (13C/12C), and nitrogen (15N/14N) were analyzed in the soft tissues of 12 common species of fish from the near-shore waters of the Peter the Great Bay in the Sea of Japan. The average δ13C values of individual species varied from −20.7‰ for planktivorous fish to −16.8‰ for benthivorous fish, reflecting the growing relative contribution of benthic primary producers to fish nutrition. The majority of the various species representatives studied can be assigned to one trophic level, as indicated by their narrow range of δ15N values (9.9 to 12.6‰). Large interspecific variations were found in the sulfur stable isotope ratios of fish (the mean δ34S values ranged from 11.2 to 19.5‰). This is the result of the different contributions to fish nutrition of infaunal invertebrates that are depleted in 34S due to the microbial food chain of the bottom sediments.

ISOTOPES MARK THE SPOT

WHEN IRISH criminal investigators couldn’t identify a dismembered body, parts of which they found around a canal near Dublin in the spring of 2005, Wolfram Meier-Augenstein got a phone call. An analytical chemist at James Hutton Institute, in Dundee, Scotland, Meier-Augenstein has pioneered a way to help determine where unidentified victims like this one lived or traveled. To do so, he measures the stable isotope ratios of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur found in samples of the victim’s hair, teeth, nail, and bone. Checking these elements’ isotope ratios against databases that contain global isotope abundances can provide investigators with the victim’s probable trajectory during his or her last weeks, months, and years. In the case of the Dublin body, “the Irish investigators had several leads, but they were all equally probable,” Meier-Augenstein says. But his isotope data pointed to a likely home area for the victim. Following that lead, the police eventually identified the ...

The composition of fatty acids and stable isotopes in the detritophage Acila insignis (Gould, 1861) (Bivalvia: Nuculidae): Searching for markers of a microbial food web

The fatty acid composition and stable isotope ratios of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur were analyzed in the protobranch bivalve Acila insignis, a selective detritophage inhabiting subtidal sand sediments of Vostok Bay (Sea of Japan). Soft tissues of A. insignis contained abnormally high concentrations of the polyunsaturated arachidonic acid, 20: 4(n-6), and a rare monounsaturated fatty acid 20: 1(n-13), which distinguishes this species from other bivalves. The high concentrations of these fatty acids in A. insignis, together with the low values of σ34S and the high values of σ13C and σ15N, are probably a result of feeding on the microbial food web.

Tracing sources of coal combustion using stable sulfur isotope ratios in epilithic mosses and coals from China

In China, coal combustion is the most important source of atmospheric sulfur pollution. Moss sulfur isotopic signatures have been believed to hold source-specific information that can serve as a fingerprint to identify atmospheric sulfur sources. In cities where only local coals were combusted, we observed a good correspondence of average sulfur isotope ratios in urban mosses (Haplocladium microphyllum) to the values of local coals (δ(coals) = 1.455δ(mosses)- 3.945, R(2) = 0.975, p = 0.01). But if different types of coals were combusted, we did not know whether moss sulfur isotope ratios can indicate mixed coals. To confirm this, using a mixing model we estimated the ratios of imported coal to local coals at cities where both coals were used. We found that the estimated ratios at large cities (>1 million people) where both coals were used were similar to the reported ratios in their respective provinces. For small cities (<0.5 million people) in Jiangxi Province and other provinces, the estimated ratios were higher than the reported ratios because the relatively cheaper local coals were less used in all the small cities except in cities where local coal deposits were found nearby. The comparison results showed that moss sulfur isotope is a useful tool for indicating coal-derived sulfur even in cities where mixed coals were combusted.

Spatial Distribution of Stable Sulfur Isotope Ratio in Coal Samples in East Asian Region

東アジア地域において，産出・使用されている石炭の硫黄同位体比分析を行った。その結果，黄土高原グループの硫黄同位体比は＋4.7～＋7.1‰(平均値：＋5.7‰)，雲南省グループは－20.0～＋9.9‰(平均値：－4.1‰)，トルファングループは＋8.6‰と＋1.9‰，プリモルスキーは＋6.1‰，モンゴル中央部グループは－2.5～＋5.0‰(平均値：＋1.1‰)，モンゴル東部グループは＋6.1～＋8.7‰(平均値：＋6.9‰)，韓国炭は－9.7‰であった。一方，インドネシア炭の硫黄同位体比は＋3.2～＋9.8‰(平均値：＋6.5‰)，オーストラリア炭は＋4.3‰と＋9.3‰であった。

Climate control of sulfate influx to Lake Hovsgol, northwest Mongolia, during the last glacial–postglacial transition: Constraints from sulfur geochemistry

Changes in sulfur cycles in Lake Hovsgol (northwest Mongolia) are discussed on the basis of total organic carbon (TOC), total sulfur (TS) concentrations and stable sulfur isotope ratios (δ 34S) in two sediment cores (X104 and X106) covering the last glacial to the present. Correlation plots of TOC and TS (C–S plots) of the sediment cores indicate dissolved sulfate enrichment in sediment pore water and high sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) activity during the climate transition from the last glacial to postglacial period (LG–PG transition, from ca. 21 to 11.6 cal ka BP). In addition, positive shifts of δ 34S values (from + 3.7‰ to + 32.6‰) were observed during the LG–PG transition. These results suggest a large influx of 34S-rich dissolved sulfate into the lake during this period. The 34S-rich dissolved sulfate may have accumulated on the shore (wetlands and marshes) of Lake Hovsgol during the last glacial period. Owing to the increase in atmospheric precipitation and lake level rise during the LG–PG transition, the 34S-rich dissolved sulfate may have been supplied from the shore to the lake. Increased sulfate influx during the LG–PG transition has also been observed in a Lake Baikal sediment core. Our new sulfur geochemical data shows past-environmental changes, particularly moisture changes, within continental Asia during the climate transition.

Stable sulphur isotope ratios in the moss species Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) B.S.G. and Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt. from the Kielce area (south-central Poland)

Stable sulphur isotope determinations were performed on 18 moss samples collected at nine sites in forested areas of the city of Kielce. The δ34S of Hylocomium splendens varied from 4.4 to 7.1 ‰, whereas the δ34S of Pleurozium schreberi was in the range of 3.7–9.1 ‰. The Holy Cross Mountains mosses display a positive δ34S signature of airborne SO2 and sulphates of anthropogenic origin, which is characteristic for this part of Europe. Some spatial variations in the δ34S of mosses are due to the interactions that occur between coal combustion emissions with diverse isotopic imprints, variations in wind direction and topographic features combined with biological fractionation.

Development of a Direct Procedure for the Measurement of Sulfur Isotope Variability in Beers by MC-ICP-MS

In this work, a multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) was evaluated for the direct measurement of sulfur stable isotope ratios in beers as a first step toward a general study of the natural isotope variability of sulfur in foods and beverages. Sample preparation consisted of a simple dilution of the beers with 1% (v/v) HNO(3). It was observed that different sulfur isotope ratios were obtained for different dilutions of the same sample indicating that matrix effects affected differently the transmission of the sulfur ions at masses 32, 33, and 34 in the mass spectrometer. Correction for mass bias related matrix effects was evaluated using silicon internal standardization. For that purpose, silicon isotopes at masses 29 and 30 were included in the sulfur cup configuration and the natural silicon content in beers used for internal mass bias correction. It was observed that matrix effects on differential ion transmission could be corrected adequately using silicon internal standardization. The natural isotope variability of sulfur has been evaluated by measuring 26 different beer brands. Measured delta(34)S values ranged from -0.2 to 13.8 per thousand. Typical combined standard uncertainties of the measured delta(34)S values were < or = 2 per thousand. The method has therefore great potential to study sulfur isotope variability in foods and beverages.

Multielement stable isotope ratios (H, C, N, S) of honey from different European regions

The aim of this study as a part of the food traceability project “TRACE” funded by the EU was to investigate if honeys produced in regions with different climatic and geological characteristics could be discriminated on the basis of the isotopic data. The hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur stable isotope ratios of 516 authentic honeys from 20 European regions are presented and discussed. As honey contains only small quantities of nitrogen and sulphur, the honey protein was precipitated in order to obtain measurable amounts of these elements. The mean hydrogen isotopic ratios of the honey protein were found to be significantly correlated with the mean hydrogen isotopic ratios of precipitation and groundwater in the production regions. Carbon isotopic ratios were influenced by climate. The sulphur stable isotope composition is clearly influenced by geographical location (sea spray effect) and surface geology of the production regions. The results show that the stable isotope ratios of the four bio-elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and sulphur in honey protein can be applied to verify the origin of honey. Carbon and sulphur were identified by canonical discriminant analysis as providing the maximum discrimination between honey samples. For seven regions the percentage of correct classified samples is greater than 70%. It was concluded that the methodology in its current state can be used to provide reliable origin information.

Combining Organic Matter Source and Relative Trophic Position Determinations to Explore Trophic Structure

Stable isotope ratios of carbon and sulfur were used to assess organic matter utilization of numerically abundant consumers present in Apalachicola Bay, FL, USA. These results were used to infer nitrogen isotopic enrichment of organic matter sources in an effort to establish baseline δ15N enrichment for trophic evaluations. We compared results from concentration-independent and concentration-dependent mixing models and found that the two methods resulted in widely different conclusions about the importance of organic matter sources that varied ninefold in sulfur concentrations. Nitrogen isotopic enrichment was used to determine relative trophic positions of consumer organisms. Source elemental concentrations of nitrogen were also considered in the calculation of relative trophic levels in a concentration-dependent approach. Concentration-independent and concentration-dependent methods of calculating trophic results were compared. While relative trophic levels of individual species varied continuously from approximately 1.7 to 3.5, comparisons of trophic level among consumers indicated four possible trophic groupings. Filter feeders (mussels and oysters) made up the lowest trophic tier while teleost fishes made up the highest trophic tier. Invertebrates sampled were assigned intermediate nondiscrete trophic levels. Because δ15N values of important organic matter sources in the system were similar, the concentration-independent and concentration-dependent methods did not result in significantly different conclusions about trophic level for any of the consumers examined. However, a comparison of the two methods applied to a hypothetical case found that differences in base δ15N values ranging approximately 4‰ resulted in significantly different trophic-level assignments when comparing the concentration-dependent and concentration-independent methods of trophic-level calculations. Our results confirm that consideration of the elemental concentrations of the base organisms is an important factor in determining source contributions and may affect trophic-level calculations in systems with a sufficient range of base nitrogen enrichment. However, this result depended on the relative isotopic signatures of the chosen sources and their elemental concentrations and should be considered individually for each system.

Geochemistry and stable sulfur and oxygen isotope ratios of the Podwiśniówka pit pond water generated by acid mine drainage (Holy Cross Mountains, south-central Poland)

Abstract The paper presents the results of a geochemical and isotopic study of acidic pond water in the abandoned Podwiśniowka quarry (Poland). The scope of investigations also encompassed mineralogical and isotopic studies of pyrite and related supergene minerals. Compared to similar sites throughout the world, the pit pond water examined is characterized by a very low pH averaging 2.64 ± 0.33 and simultaneously very low concentrations of SO 4 2 - (geometric mean of 237 ± 57 mg L−1), Fe(II) (4.8 ± 3.4 mg L−1), Fe(III) (10.0 ± 6.2 mg L−1) and other trace elements. This acidity has been generated by complex processes of As-rich pyrite oxidation combined primarily with hydrolysis, precipitation, and transformation of Fe oxyhydroxysulfates and oxyhydroxides into goethite. The specific mineralogy of ore and gangue minerals, but especially the lack of acid–buffering constituents, has additionally contributed to the very low pH and element concentrations. Of the toxic elements, the high content of As (1111–1879 mg kg−1) in the western part of pit pond sediment may be of great concern, especially when using lime as a neutralizing agent of the acidic water. The δ34S of soluble SO4 varied from −19.8‰ to −11.1‰ and was different from that of efflorescent sulfates (−25.7‰ to −25.4‰) and host pyrite (−25.4 ± 2.5‰). The comparison of the δ18O– SO 4 2 − (−2.0 ± 1.2‰) and δ18O–H2O (−6.2 ± 3.5‰) values indicated that the pyrite underwent bacterially catalyzed oxidation by two natural oxidants, primarily by Fe3+ and to a lesser extent O2.

Seasonal and event variations in δ34S values of stream sulfate in a Vermont forested catchment: Implications for sulfur sources and cycling

Stable sulfur (S) isotope ratios can be used to identify the sources of sulfate contributing to streamwater. We collected weekly and high-flow stream samples for S isotopic analysis of sulfate through the entire water year 2003 plus the snowmelt period of 2004. The study area was the 41-ha forested W-9 catchment at Sleepers River Research Watershed, Vermont, a site known to produce sulfate from weathering of sulfide minerals in the bedrock. The δ 34S values of streamwater sulfate followed an annual sinusoidal pattern ranging from about 6.5‰ in early spring to about 10‰ in early fall. During high-flow events, δ 34S values typically decreased by 1 to 3‰ from the prevailing seasonal value. The isotopic evidence suggests that stream sulfate concentrations are controlled by: (1) an overall dominance of bedrock-derived sulfate ( δ 34S ~ 6–14‰); (2) contributions of pedogenic sulfate ( δ 34S ~ 5–6‰) during snowmelt and storms with progressively diminishing contributions during base flow recession; and (3) minor effects of dissimilatory bacterial sulfate reduction and subsequent reoxidation of sulfides. Bedrock should not be overlooked as a source of S in catchment sulfate budgets.

Chemical and isotopic variations in the Wiśniówka Mała mine pit water, Holy Cross Mountains (south-central Poland)

In 2005 and 2006, hydrogeochemical study was carried out in the bipartite Wiśniowka Mala pit lake of the Holy Cross Mountains (south-central Poland). This is the largest acidic water body in Poland. This report presents the element concentrations in the water and sediment, stable sulfur and oxygen isotope ratios in the soluble sulfates, and stable oxygen isotope ratio in the water. The scope of the investigation also encompassed mineralogical examinations (scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction) of the sediment. The results of this study show that there is a spatial and temporal variability in concentrations of most elements and sulfur isotope ratios in the examined pit lake. The water of the western pond displayed a lower pH with a mean of 3.73 and higher conductivity (390 μS cm−1) as well as higher concentrations of sulfates (156 mg L−1) and most of the cations and anions. The concentrations of Fe2+ and Fe3+ averaged 0.8 and 0.4 mg·L−1. In contrast, the eastern pond water revealed a higher pH (mean of 4.36), lower conductivity (293 μS cm−1) and lower sulfate (90 mg L−1) and trace metal levels. Similar variations were recorded in the stable sulfur isotope ratios. The δ34SV-CDT(SO42−) values in the water of the western pit pond were in the range of −6.7 to −4.6‰ (mean of −5.6‰), whereas that in the eastern pit pond ranged from −2.2 to −0.9‰ (−1.6‰). The alkalinity of the entire lake water was below 0.1 mg·L−1 CaCO3. No distinct difference in the δ18OV-SMOW(SO42−) was noted between the western and eastern pit ponds. Compared to the Purple Pond in the Sudetes (Poland) and similar sites throughout the world, the examined pit lake is highlighted by distinctly low concentrations of sulfates, iron and other trace metals. Based on this and other studies performed in the Holy Cross Mountains, a conclusion can be drawn that the SO42− in the Wiśniowka Mala pit lake water is a mixture of SO42− derived from the following sources: (1) pyrite oxidation (especially in the western pond water), (2) leaching of soluble sulfates from soils and waste material, as well as (3) subordinate deposition of airborne sulfate precipitation.