Suitability Index Research Articles

KAJIAN KESESUAIAN DAN DAYA DUKUNG FISIK KAWASAN PANTAI YANAIN DI NEGERI HULALIU KECAMATAN PULAU HARUKUKABUPATEN MALUKU TENGAH

This research aims to assess the suitability and physical carrying capacity of Yanain Beach in Hulaliu State, Pulau Haruku District, Central Maluku Regency as a tourist destination. The methodology employed in this study involved a survey, collecting both primary and secondary data through direct field observations. Primary data included visual observations and measurements at Station 1 and Station 2, as well as interviews with visitors to the beach area. Data analysis utilized tourism suitability index and physical carrying capacity of the beach area. Yanain Beach covers an area of 2.14 hectares with a sandy beach width of 18.76 meters, providing ample space for tourist activities. Additionally, it features a relatively shallow depth (1.48 meters), slow current velocity (0.0847 m/s), and high water clarity (>80%), making it an attractive tourist destination. Based on the calculated values, it was concluded that Yanain Beach in Hulaliu Village is "Highly Suitable" for various tourism activities, with an average TSI score of 92.25%. Furthermore, the analysis of the beach's carrying capacity indicated that the area can accommodate 641 people per day for recreation purposes, and 407 people per day for swimming and bathing activities at the beach.

Spatial Distribution and Abundance of a Pelagic Squid during the Evolution of Eddies in the Southeast Pacific Ocean

The Humboldt squid (Dosidicus gigas), is a significant economic species off Peru. The abundance and distribution of the species are highly susceptible to fluctuations in marine environmental conditions. The evolution of mesoscale eddies represents one of the dynamic processes in the ocean, exerting varying degrees of influence on regional biogeochemical processes from generation to dissipation. However, the mechanisms governing the regulation of abundance and spatial distribution of D. gigas off Peru during this evolution remain unclear. Therefore, this study employed normalization techniques and the habitat suitability index (HSI) model, utilizing data from the D. gigas fishery, mesoscale eddies, and marine environmental factors (including sea surface temperature, temperature at 50 m depth, and chlorophyll-a concentration) to analyze the environmental changes and the abundance, spatial distribution, and habitat changes of D. gigas during the evolution of mesoscale eddies. The results indicate that eddies undergo four stages: formation, intensification, maturity, and decay. During eddy evolution, the abundance of D. gigas exhibited an initial increase and a subsequent decrease within cyclonic eddies (CEs), whereas, within anticyclonic eddies (AEs), abundance showed a gradual decline. The outcome of the HSI model revealed that, the habitat suitability and the proportion of suitable habitat areas within eddies were highly consistent with the abundance of D. gigas during all stages of the eddies other than the intensification stage of AEs. The study speculated that both CEs and AEs can create favorable environmental conditions during the maturity stage, thereby leading to an increase in suitable habitat and abundance of D. gigas. These findings emphasize the significant impact of mesoscale eddy evolution on the abundance and habitat distribution of D. gigas.

Distinctive hydrodynamic properties and ecological responses of multi-thread rivers under different degrees of multiplicity in the Upper Yellow River

Alluvial rivers that exhibit multi-thread patterns are common in nature and can be the dominant channel morphology in large rivers. However, their ecological properties in response to diverse and dynamic channel morphology has gained limited attention and remained poorly understood. In this study, we adopted an eco-hydraulic model by integrating a hydrodynamic, a sediment-transport, and a habitat-suitability model to assess habitat quality for fish species (Schizopygopsis pylzovi and Platypharodon extremus) in three anabranching reaches with each exhibiting a distinct anabranching morphology in the Upper Yellow River, eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Based on the hydrologic data and actual channel morphology, we modeled the hydrodynamic and sediment-transport conditions for a period spanning ten years, and simulated habitat conditions under a potentially changing environment with different flow magnitudes and frequencies. The results indicated that the average flow velocity in the low and mid-order anabranching reaches is higher than that in the high-order, complex anabranching reaches. Meanwhile, the bedload transport rate was higher in the high and mid-order anabranching reaches than that in the low-order anabranching reach, demonstrating a greater transport efficiency of multi-thread systems with a greater multiplicity. Consequently, the habitat suitability shows a deteriorating trend over the ten-year modeling period and Schizopygopsis pylzovi shows better habitat status than Platypharodon extremus. The flow magnitudes and frequency also have a significant impact on the distribution of high habitat suitability index among the different river patterns in Upper Yellow River. This study can provide valuable information to optimize ecological outcomes and provide valuable insights for future dam operation strategies and consideration efforts aimed at preserving and restoring riverine ecosystems.

Solar energy potential mapping in Ukraine through integration of GIS, remote sensing, and fuzzy logic

ABSTRACT The Green Deal strategic plan for the development of renewable energy until 2030 is of particular importance in the context of the restoration of Ukraine’s post-war energy infrastructure. One of the key topics is the analysis of the possibilities of installing large solar power plants in Ukraine. In this article, a multi-criteria analysis of the suitability of the territory of Ukraine is carried out on the basis of climatic, topographic and land use criteria. To assess land suitability, criteria standardized using fuzzy logic with weights determined by experts through the method of pairwise comparisons were combined using a weighted sum model. Upon completing the study, a suitability map was generated, depicting zones with varying levels of suitability (ranging from 0 to 1) for solar power plant placement. It was found that more than 35.68% of the country has average values of the suitability index (0.65–0.7), and approximately 18.82% show high indicators (<0.7). Conditions are especially favorable in the south of Ukraine.

Hydraulic analysis for assessing environmental flow selection and ecological model formulation

AbstractEcosystem management depends on transforming qualitative observations (e.g., slow‐moving shallow conditions provide nursery refugia for silvery minnow larvae) into management actions to increase habitat quantity or improve habitat quality. To be effective, decision metrics that are developed for management objectives should be validated with field observations. Model assumptions, precision and parameter importance can be refined by comparing the fidelity of selected parameters computed as habitat quality metrics and the correlation of these metrics to real‐world observations. Validated environmental metrics are more credible for management and can be compatible with ecosystem monitoring and project design processes. In this study, streamflow monitoring data and hydraulic modelling are used to quantify fish habitat extent for 15 years of spring runoff. The spring runoff event coincides with larval maturation to a free‐swimming juvenile phase for the silvery minnow, a critical period in Rio Grande habitat management. Different methods to estimate habitat availability (i.e., hydrology statistics, inundation extents based on hydraulic modelling and areal habitat availability based on different formulations of a habitat suitability index curve) were used to test the efficacy of different metrics relative to species population monitoring. This analysis finds that flow–ecology relationships based on hydraulic modelling or hydrology statistics are both effective and highly correlated to larval production. The investigation shows how seasonal hydrologic characterization and hydraulic discretization have varying levels of correlation with seasonal fish production. This study demonstrates how hydraulic modelling data and hydrologic characterization of riverine environments can be used to validate or develop conceptual ecological models.

Identification of Potential and Suitability of Bagek Kembar Mangrove Forest, Cendi Manik, Sekotong, Lombok Barat as a Tourist Attraction

Mangrove forests have various roles in the environment, and have the potential to be developed as ecotourism areas. The aim of this study is to identify the potential and suitability of the Bagek Kembar mangrove forest as a tourist attraction. Data collection was carried out at two stations, namely natural and rehabilitated mangroves. Samples were taken in plots measuring 10 x 10 meters for mangroves and mobile fauna, and 1 x 1 meter plots for sessile fauna. The Tourism Suitability Index is analyzed based on the number of species, density and thickness of mangroves, number of fauna species, and water depth at high and low tides. The research results show that the Bagek Kembar mangrove forest area is classified as suitable to very suitable for development as an ecotourism area. Tourist attractions that potential to be developed are educational, birdwatching and culinary.

Impacts of land-use change on the habitat suitability and connectivity of giant panda

Land-use changes lead to habitat loss and fragmentation, which poses a further threat to the survival of species. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze how land-use change affects its habitat. 37 counties in Sichuan Province, China, where giant pandas are distributed, were selected as the subjects. Through analyzing land-use change, habitat suitability and connectivity characteristics over the past 20 years, and establishing a correlation between them, the impacts of land-use change on the habitat suitability and connectivity of giant pandas were explained. The results showed that from 2000 to 2020, the different land-use areas in the study area showed a pattern of change with an increase in forest area, built-up area and water area, and a decrease in grassland area and cropland area. There were significant differences in the characteristics of land-use dynamics changes among counties. Changes in land-use dynamics have a significant impact on the habitat suitability and connectivity of giant pandas, which is manifested in the fact that the conversion of forestland to grassland and grassland to cultivated land significantly reduces habitat suitability, while the conversion of grassland to forestland and cultivated to forestland significantly increases the connectivity of giant panda habitats. Changes in the habitat suitability index were significantly and positively correlated with the land-use dynamics index and the land-use degree index. Our findings emphasize the importance of balancing socio-economic development, land-use, and conservation efforts to maintain giant panda habitat. Therefore, the development of rational land-use patterns in future management is key to maximizing the comprehensive social, economic and ecological benefits.

Optimizing Malaria Control: Granular and Cost-Effective Mosquito Habitat Index in Endemic Areas Through Satellite Imagery

Malaria, classified as a tropical disease under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) indicator 3.3, remains a significant global health challenge. In this study, by taking advantage of multiple spectral composite indexes of multisource satellite imagery to capture various geospatial features relevant to the suitability of marsh mosquito habitat, we introduced the Mosquito Habitat Suitability Index (MHSI) to assess potential Anopheles mosquito breeding sites in terms of the vegetation density, water bodies, environment temperature, and humidity in any particular areas. The MHSI integrates the publicly accessible granular level of the normalized difference vegetation index, water index, land surface temperature, and moisture index from cost-effective low and medium-resolution optical satellite data. We focus on West Papua Province, Indonesia, known for diverse ecological conditions and varying malaria prevalence, as a case study area. From the built index, the risk zone map is then formed with the K-Means algorithm. One key finding is the elevated risk in Fakfak Regency, demanding particular attention, as its high-risk area represents 45% of its total. This research aids localized decision-making to combat malaria's unique challenges in West Papua Province which are relevant for implementation in other regions, contributing to SDG-aligned interventions for malaria eradication by 2030.

Enhancing ecological success in Yangtze River channel construction: A numerical modelling approach

AbstractChannel constructions significantly impact river hydrodynamics, subsequently influencing river ecosystems. To mitigate the negative influence of channel construction and protect fish habitat, it is essential to evaluate fish habitat suitability through the integration of hydrodynamic and habitat models. This study models channel constructions on both the left and right riverbanks to evaluate habitat suitability for Four Major Chinese Carps and the Chinese sturgeon. Initially, flow velocity, water depth and grain size are simulated, followed by an assessment of habitat conditions using the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) for three distinct construction strategies. Results reveal that constructing channels on the left bank mitigates adverse effects on fish habitat, while constructions on the right bank and both riverbanks lead to habitat degradation. Long‐term effects on riverbed elevation and fish habitat suitability post‐construction were also investigated. Notably, the Four Major Chinese Carps consistently demonstrate greater suitability for the studied river, regardless of flow rate or construction strategies, in comparison to the Chinese sturgeon. These findings underscore diverse responses to channel construction, providing valuable insights for identifying critical habitat areas for endemic fish conservation. This research presents a robust framework for assessing fish ecology in river systems, offering support for conservation decision‐makers.

An ecotourism suitability index for a world heritage city using GIS-multi criteria decision analysis techniques

The concept of ecotourism has experienced a significant surge in popularity over the past two decades, primarily driven by the multitude of adverse impacts associated with mass tourism. The objective of the study was to develop a comprehensive ecotourism suitability index to guide policymakers in implementing tourism development policies. Given the considerable appeal of the study area to both local and international tourists, it is essential to conduct a systematic evaluation to pinpoint suitable areas for ecotourism development. This necessity arises from the study area's placement within a fragile ecosystem and its proximity to a UNESCO World Heritage site. We employed a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) integrated environment coupled with a fuzzy Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) methodology. The GIS-MCDA integrated framework leverages the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and a weighted linear combination that seeks to amalgamate many features and criteria to assess ecotourism potential by integrating 20 criteria into six separate categories: landscape, topography, accessibility, climate, forest and wildlife, and negative factors. Weights were allocated to each criterion and factor based on the expert's opinions of their impact on the development of ecotourism. The final ecotourism suitability index comprised five unique classes: very high, high, moderate, less, and not suitable. Results reveal that out of the total areas, 45.4 % (259 km2) are within the high and very high suitable classes. The sensitivity analysis suggested that ecotourism potentials are more favorable to forest and accessibility variables. The generated index can be utilized as a road map since validation verified a 64 % accuracy. Given the dearth of earlier research, this study provides vital support for the development of sustainable ecotourism projects in the study area.

An attainable site suitability index for utility-scale solar facilities

Large, utility-scale solar energy facilities are increasingly being deployed throughout the United States, with nearly 10 000 projects over 1 megawatt completed by the end of 2023. One understudied aspect of the decision making process for these solar projects concerns site suitability. The current body of literature on this topic has identified core infrastructure, such as substations or transmission lines, as important in this process, yet other variables serve as potentially important drivers. This research aims to provide policymakers, planners, and regulators with a practically applicable method to better identify areas that are suitable candidates for such solar facilities. In particular, this paper develops a replicable method that produces a site suitability index that accounts for a suite of variables that are considered key, positive factors in where solar facilities ought to locate, including: (1) economic factors; (2) critical infrastructure and high energy users; and (3) workforce. Ultimately, our work is valuable to government and local officials such as policymakers and planners with limited resources and in-house capacity to understand the suitability for energy infrastructure. In fact, providing an attainable index for the site suitability of utility-scale solar facilities reduces the burden on policy and planning related stakeholders to understand the competitive advantage of their regions and to convey it to interested developers.

Environmental footprints of the data center service sector in Sweden

The global data center (DC) sector has expanded rapidly during the last decades, due to the rising demand for digital services. In the Nordic region, Sweden has emerged as a global hub, attracting leading technology companies like Amazon, Facebook, Microsoft, and Google. Server halls of DCs are energy intensive buildings, which puts pressure on local water resources and contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions. This study aims to, firstly, quantify the environmental impact of DCs, based on energy usage, water consumption, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Secondly, it develops a planning tool by employing a multi-criteria approach to optimally locate new DCs and to assess the site suitability of existing ones in Sweden. Data of various performance indicators (geographical data on renewable energy accessibility, free cooling conditions, excess heat receivers, and resilience to water shortages) of DCs was collected through different means, e.g., questionnaire surveys, permit applications, company websites, and other open online data repositories. ArcGIS Pro was employed for spatial analysis, and 68 DCs with a site suitability index (SSI) ≤ 45 % were identified as less ideally located. The principal findings are centered on Sweden, and thereby primarily benefit stakeholders engaged in decision-making for evaluating existing or strategic planning of new DCs by incorporating a comprehensive environmental perspective. Given the rapidly changing climate, strategically siting DCs will become crucial for minimizing the sector's environmental impact.

Using interpretative structure model and analytical network process for optimum site selection of airport locations in Delta Egypt

Abstract Airports are among the constructions that must meet international standards and specifications established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Some of these parameters and criteria include topography, environmental, and operating circumstances. Navigation operations are also affected by terrain and human barriers, while noise, infrastructure, and weather factors affect the environment around airports. This article investigates using the interpretative structure model (ISM) and analytical network process (ANP) together as a new technique to select and determine the optimum site selection for constructing new international airports in the Nile Delta, Egypt. The criteria used (16 international criteria) are selected depending on the standards of the ICAO, field surveys, and previous studies. Nile Delta, Egypt, is chosen as a case study because it suffers from the lack of international airports and has a population of approximately 23 million. Therefore, new international airports must be established to serve this region, boost tourism, improve transportation, and stimulate commercial traffic. The results using the suggested new technique are compared with the traditional used methods for site selection, such as fuzzy-analytic hierarchy process. Landsat 8 images are used in this research. A quality test using the area under the curve and the receiver operating characteristic curve was applied to evaluate the new technique for site selection of international airports, depending on calculating the highest suitability index for each proposed site. From the quality tests, it is deduced that the suggested method (ISM–ANP) for airport site selection is more accurate than any other traditional method. ArcGIS 10.5 software is used to draw the final digital maps containing the proposed resulted sites. As a result, three new locations for the construction of international airports were found and selected throughout the research region (Delta Nile, Egypt) based on the used mathematical models. Therefore, the proposed novel method for determining the locations of international airports is thought to be effective and feasible, and it can be used to determine the locations of any development projects in general, particularly in developing countries, which benefits the decision-makers in making the right decisions.

Appraisal of groundwater suitability and hydrochemical characteristics by using various water quality indices and statistical analyses in the Wadi Righ area, Algeria

ABSTRACT This assessment research focuses on the hydrochemical characteristics and groundwater suitability in the Wadi Righ region, in southern Algeria. The statement of the problem revolves around determining water quality using various indices including Permeability Index (PI), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Water Quality Index (WQI), Sodium Percentage (Na%), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment's Water Quality Index (CCME WQI), Magnesium Hazard (MH), Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI), and Kelly Index (KR). Additionally, statistical methods were utilized to establish correlations between these indices and chemical elements. The working method involved investigating hydrochemical parameters in Wadi Righ's groundwater and analyzing 52 samples. The results indicate that water quality, as assessed by the water quality indices, was categorized as very poor and unsuitable overall, with lower quality observed particularly in the central and southern regions. However, groundwater demonstrated excellence and suitability for irrigation purposes. Qualitatively, the findings suggest that there are significant relationships among irrigation suitability indices, as indicated by Pearson correlation analysis. These relationships stem from shared inputs and hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater. This analysis reinforces the quantitative findings and provides insights into the underlying factors influencing groundwater quality and suitability for irrigation in the Wadi Righ region.

The impact of floods triggered by natural dam breakage on the adaptability of downstream river fish—the 2018 baige outburst flood in the upper reaches of the Yangtze river in China

Outburst floods can affect the survival adaptability of fish. Although the survival adaptability of many fish species under low steady-flow conditions has been studied, research on the survival adaptability of fish species under large outburst flood conditions is lacking. This paper takes the 2018 Baige landslide dam as an example. A breach model was developed to calculate the outburst discharge of the landslide dam. The outburst flood hydrograph is simulated with the breach model, which shows that the difference between the peak discharge of the dam break simulation results and the measured data is 0.13×104 m3/s. In addition, the simulated hydrographs are the same as the measured hydrographs. Furthermore, a two-dimensional fish habitat model was used to analyse the adaptability of Schizothorax to survival during the breaching process. For the survival adaptability of Schizothorax, we observed that as the flow rate increased the weighted usable area (WUA) decreased, which indicated a decrease in the adaptability of Schizothorax survival. In contrast, as the flow rate decreased and the WUA increased, the survival adaptability of Schizothorax improved. In addition, the WUA of Schizothorax changed with the substrate of the riverbed; the smaller the channel suitability index (CSI) the greater the WUA. This study revealed the impact of outburst floods triggered by landslide dam failure on the survival adaptability of Schizothorax, and a method for assessing the impact of outburst floods on fish habitat adaptability is provided.

Agroforestry Site Suitability for Wasteland Greening - A case study of selected districts of various agroclimatic zones

Agroforestry Site Suitability for Wasteland Greening - A case study of selected districts of various agroclimatic zones

GIS-based methodology for culvert location evaluation on railways: a case study of the Qena–Safaga Track in Egypt

ABSTRACT Railway infrastructure plays a critical role in transportation networks, and ensuring its integrity and resilience is of utmost importance. Culverts are vital components of railway tracks, providing drainage and water management to prevent structural damage and disruptions. Identifying suitable locations for culverts requires careful evaluation and consideration of various factors. A study using GIS techniques was conducted on an existing commercial railway track in the Eastern Desert of Upper Egypt to assess the effectiveness of existing culverts in preventing flash floods. The culvert suitability index map revealed that areas with high slopes and large drainage areas were more susceptible to water accumulation, indicating the need for culverts. The study also highlighted areas where culverts could be installed without significantly impacting existing infrastructure. It was recommended to install culverts in 27 locations along the track where they intersect with watercourses. Existing culverts covered just 93 watercourses, while 5 specialized culverts needed to be relocated. The findings have significant implications for railway engineering, as using GIS techniques streamlines the process of culvert location evaluation, saving time and resources. The systematic approach ensures culverts are installed in the most appropriate locations, minimizing flooding risks and ensuring the safety and efficiency of railway operations.

Dynamic monitoring and restorability evaluation of alpine wetland in the eastern edge of Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Accurate monitoring of alpine wetland areas and scientific evaluation of alpine wetland restorability play important roles in revealing the changing mechanism of the ecological environment. However, because of the complexity and lack of spatial data, few studies on evaluation index system of restorability of alpine wetland considered wild animal habitat, such as habitat suitability index of black necked crane. Based on Landsat images of seven periods from 1990 to 2020, this study adopts the methods of spectral mixture analysis and change vector analysis to quantitatively demonstrate the variations and distribution patterns of alpine wetland ecosystem in the eastern edge of Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The study focuses on determining the abundance of water, vegetation and soil, which the interannual variations represent as the shapes of ‘√’, mirror ‘N’ and normal ‘N’, respectively. In terms of natural ecological condition and human activity interference, we construct a comprehensive evaluation model of restorability of alpine wetland, separate the restorability district and construct the Bayesian network model to discuss the causal relationship between the restorability value and evaluation factor. Results show that the regions of alpine wetland in the study area changed most drastically from 1995 to 2000 and from 2000 to 2005. In addition, the total areas classified as suitable, relatively suitable and suitable for restoration account for 63.69 % of the study area, with a large potential for wetland restorability. Moreover, the prioritisation scheme of wetland restoration action includes the valley swamps of Heihe River in the middle, followed by the flat wetlands and grasslands in the south and lastly by uneven wetlands in the north.

Identifying intrusion of seawater in coastal aquifers by modified GALDIT (M-GALDIT) index

Contamination of coastal aquifers by seawater intrusion (SWI) is a major environmental problem. A modified GALDIT method (M-GALDIT), and multi-criteria decision model AHP has been used to identify regions vulnerable to seawater intrusion. We have used the groundwater suitability index for seawater intrusion (GQISWI) in estimating the M-GALDIT index. While the GALDIT analysis indicates that ∼28% of the area is moderately vulnerable, and 8% of the area is relatively highly vulnerable, our estimates using AHP and M-GALDIT method indicate ∼19% of the area as moderately vulnerable, ∼22% of the area as relatively highly vulnerable zones. The GQISWI values in the region vary between 0 and 96.96, indicating that most of the groundwater samples belong to mixed water types. Faults and fractures, population distribution, water-rock interaction, ionic exchange reactions, and evaporation appear to be the dominant mechanisms, besides seawater intrusion that control the overall groundwater geochemistry in the region. Ca2+-HCO3-, Ca2+-Na+-HCO3−, and Ca2+-Mg2+-Cl− are the most dominant water types in the study area. The seawater mixing index (SMI) reveals that ∼34.5% of samples are of relatively freshwater types, whereas ∼61% of samples appear contaminated to some extent, presumably due to the mixing of seawater, or anthropogenic activities such as mining, agricultural activities, etc. Furthermore, analysis of the HFE-D diagram indicates that ∼23% of samples are directly affected by seawater intrusion.

Utilization of Multi-Mission Satellite Altimetry for Wave Energy with Site Suitability Analysis using the Analytic Hierarchy Process

Space technology advancements have enabled the acquisition of marine data that support the research on wave energy as an alternative to reduce fossil fuel dependency and mitigate climate change. Malaysia's ocean renewable energy potential lacks attention from local authorities due to insufficient in-situ data, posing challenges in investigating ocean characteristics, such as wave heights. This study investigated Malaysia's wave energy potential using extensive significant wave height data from multiple altimetry missions. The former assessed site suitability using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) multicriteria analysis, incorporating marine constraints, namely socioeconomic, physical, and environmental factors. The multicriteria findings were integrated into a Geographical Information System (GIS) to improve the site suitability analysis and generate a localized suitability index for wave energy. Validation of satellite altimeter data with in-situ measurements showed a strong correlation and low RMSE. AHP analysis indicated good consistency in the criteria analysis, with a consistency ratio of 0.045, which falls below the limit of 0.1. The coastal and offshore regions of the Malaysian seas are suitable for harnessing wave energy with energy ranges up to 4.21 kW/m. Therefore, this study provides valuable information to stakeholders and the government to increase their interest in wave energy.