Subsistence Farming Research Articles

The Biofumigation Potential of Wild Radish (Raphanus Raphanustrum) and Field Mustard (Sinapis Arvensis) in Controlling Some Phytoparisitic Nematodes

Biofumigation is the process of introducing plants and their residues into the soil to release volatile compounds. Among these plants, those belonging to the Brassicaceae family are the most commonly used ones for biofumigation purposes. These plants are rich in glucosinolates, which upon enzymatic hydrolysis produce compounds such as isothiocyanates, which are approved as nematicides. Raphanus, Sinapis, and Eruca species genera are the most frequently used plants in the Brassicaceae family for biofumigation. This technique is becoming increasingly popular as a sustainable alternative to restricting fumigants in agriculture production. Dry plants (at vegetative and flowering stages) of Raphanus raphanustrum and Sinapis arvensis are incorporated into the soil and evaluated for their biofumigation effects on some phytoparasitic nematodes in comparison to a synthetic nematicide (tefluthrin 1.5%) and untreated control. Thirty days post-incorporation, soil samples were collected for nematode extraction and counting, and subsequently identified at the genus level. We identified four phytoparasitic nematodes that are most harmful to cultivated plants (Tylenchorhynchus, Pratylenchus, Paratylenchus, and Tylenchus). Each treatment decreased nematode population densities from 67% to 92%. Sinapis arvensis biofumigation was the most effective, reducing nematode densities by up to 92%. Conversely, Raphanus raphanustrum and Tefluthrin 1.5% treatments generally resulted in increased nematode densities (up to 74% and 67% respectively). The results of this study have given valuable information and suggest that Sinapis arvensis could be used to manage plant-parasitic nematodes, particularly the Tylenchorhynchus population. Biofumigation is a promising strategy that can be used especially by subsistence farmers for the sustainable production of crops in the presence of lower nematode pest densities.

Food Security of Urban Agricultural Households in the Area of North Bandung, West Java, Indonesia

Urban agriculture is crucial in improving food security through the diversity of food produced by urban farmers. However, there have not been many studies that discuss the food security of urban farmers of three types simultaneously, i.e., subsistence, semi-commercial, and commercial. Therefore, this study has the benefit of looking at the food security condition of urban farmer households. This research was conducted in the North Bandung area, West Java, Indonesia. A sequential mixed method was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data to determine the condition of food security in each urban farmer household. A total of 321 households were used as respondents for this study, consisting of 107 subsistence agriculture households, 107 semi-commercial agriculture households, and 107 commercial agriculture households. Our study found that the average calorie adequacy of farmer households in all urban agriculture types (subsistence, semi-commercial, and commercial) was 84.53%. Meanwhile, the proportion of household food expenditure in all urban agriculture averaged 64.78%. In relation to food security, 53.89% of respondents were included in the food-vulnerable category and only 25.86% of the urban farmer households were included in the food-secure category. The highest food security rate was found in commercial urban agriculture households, which reached 28.04%. In general, these data reflect low household food security across all types of urban agriculture. This reality can be caused by various factors, including limited resources, dependence on food purchases, and interference from external parties.

Therapeutic and nutritive uses of <i>Macrotyloma uniflorum</i> (Lam.) Verdc. (Horsegram), a somewhat neglected plant of the family Fabaceae

Underutilized legumes are a significant group of crops that have particular importance in subsistence farming and the nutritional security of resource-poor communities in developing countries. Horsegram [<i>Macrotyloma uniflorum</i> (Lam.) Verdc.], a lesser-known neglected legume, is one such crop that is mainly cultivated in Asian and African countries as a dual-purpose crop. This climate-resilient legume is well-known for its drought hardiness and favorable agronomic features that make it suitable for cultivating dry lands under poor soil fertility conditions. It has a nutritional value comparable to other commonly consumed pulses and serves as a cheap source of nutrition for unprivileged rural communities residing in inaccessible areas. In addition, horsegram has excellent therapeutic properties and is traditionally used to cure various conditions such as kidney stones, asthma, bronchitis, leukoderma, urinary discharges, heart diseases, and piles. Furthermore, it possesses anti-diabetic and anti-ulcer activity and can help in the dietary management of obesity due to the presence of beneficial bioactive compounds. This review summarizes the nutritional composition, antinutritional factors, medicinal properties, and the potential for horsegram to be exploited as functional/medicinal food for health benefits.

Predicting runoff and sediment yields using soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model in the Jemma Subbasin of Upper Blue Nile, Central Ethiopia

The Jemma Subbasin (JS) has a major soil erosion problem emanating from deforestation, overgrazing, and agricultural expansion, including farming of unproductive fringed lands and steep slope terrains. This study was conducted to assess runoff and estimate the subsequent sediment yields in the JS using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The overall efficiency of the SWAT model to accurately estimate the sediment yields in the JS was evaluated by the values of its calibration (R2 = 0.66) and validation (R2 = 0.63), respectively. The findings of the SWAT model revealed that barren land was not only the most susceptible land use type to soil erosion, but also had the highest sediment loads followed by agricultural and grazing lands. In particular, the highest soil erosion coupled with significant sediment yields is attributed to the crop-growing period particularly in the months of July and August in which the cultivated lands were extremely vulnerable to soil erosion resulting from heavy rainfall. Consequently, sediment yields were all significantly greater in the agricultural fields of the lower, middle, and upper parts of the subbasin. This is because those agricultural lands were mainly composed of undulated and moderately steep slope terrains so that they had the highest soil erosion values. However, due to the dense vegetation cover and the associated root density, forestlands were the least erosion vulnerable land use type which in turn resulted in minimal soil loss. Furthermore, the SWAT model showed that the maximum upland sediment yield was estimated to be 3,685.14 tons/ha whereas the average upland annual sediment yield was predicted to be 78.1 tons/ha; however, the sediment yield can be doubled due to climate projection scenario. As a result of the effective implementation of cover (c) and conservation practice (p), the SWAT model predicted that the sediment yields can be reduced by 44.28 % and 35.92 % for RCP8.5 and RCP4.5, respectively. Effective designing and executing of proper soil and water management measures are crucial in the study subbasin so as to minimize the serious soil erosion challenges that can be accelerated by climate and land use land cover (LULC) changes for the long-term sustainability of the degraded landscape of the JS which is categorized by subsistence farming.

OPTIMAL CROPPING SEQUENCE OF SMALL-SCALE FARMS IN THE RAIN-FED SECTOR OF GADARIF STATE- SUDAN(1)

The study aimed to examine the Optimal Cropping Sequence of the main crops grown under the rain-fed sector of Gadarif state - Sudan: such as sorghum, millet, sesame and groundnuts. The study used both primary and secondary data. Multistage random sampling technique was used to collect primary data on small-scale farms from three villages of the state by means of questionnaire as a sample farmer from 175 of Gadarif State, during 2017 -2018 season. Secondary data were collected from Central Bureau of Statistics and Federal Ministry of Agriculture. Linear programming technique was used to determine the optimal cropping sequence of small-scale farms (less than 210ha) in the rain-fed sector of Gadarif state. Spread sheet of the excel solver was used to run the analysis. The results revealed that the current cultural practices and crop sequence, in which sorghum do not come after sesame, was not the optimal one. Food-crops (sorghum and millet) did not enter the optimal cropping pattern under the current sequences and policy measures, with sesame dominated the total land. The crop sequence of groundnuts, sesame, sorghum and millet proved to be the optimal cropping pattern that improves farmer’s returns. Under such sequence, the four crops entered the optimum plan and farmers’ returns exceed of the current situation by 181.94%, but if this sequence is used with the recommended full package of technological improvement, then farmers’ net returns will increase three times than the current practices. Small-scale farmers should be encouraged to adopt the crop sequence in which sorghum come after sesame. They should also be encouraged to change their mind to become commercially oriented (by following the crop sequences with greatest returns according to local and international demand and expected prices. Even if the subsistence crop is excluded).

Social and cultural aspects of human–wildlife conflicts: Understanding people's attitudes to crop‐raiding animals and other wildlife in agricultural systems of the Tibetan Plateau

AbstractThe social dimensions of human–wildlife conflicts are becoming increasingly important. In regions where crop‐raiding is a common issue, local people's attitudes toward wildlife is an important indicator of how successful conservation efforts are likely to be. One such area is the east Tibetan Plateau—a biodiversity hotspot with well‐preserved forest ecosystems and mountain villages where subsistence farming is practiced. In this context, we conducted a survey of people's tolerance toward wildlife in five Tibetan villages that experience conflicts arising from crop‐raiding incidents. We interviewed 83 respondents, 76 of whom were participants in a compensation scheme that provided payments for crop damage. Wildlife tolerance was generally high, mostly due to mutualistic wildlife values, whereby people believed they should coexist with animals equally instead of exploiting them as natural resources. Tolerance was influenced by people's wildlife preference rather than the level of damage to croplands: people were likely to show higher tolerance toward culturally important species even when they were crop‐raiding animals. While economic and mitigation efforts as part of traditional conservation management led to increased tolerance, the compensation scheme and fencing were less important than wildlife preference. We suggest that conservation management for human‐wildlife conflicts should develop region and stakeholder‐specific engagement strategies. Crucially, such strategies should incorporate cultural considerations to fully address the complex human dimensions inherent in these issues.

Comparative Analysis of Fruit Tree–Based Agroforestry and Monoculture in Tackling Climate Change Challenges: Evidence from Sofi District, Ethiopia

Abstract The effects of climate change have hit the agriculture sector in Africa hard. Making adjustments to adapt to the changing environment is critical for countries like Ethiopia, whose primary source of income is subsistence agriculture, which is heavily reliant on rainfall. As a result, establishing context-specific adaptation approaches is crucial for reducing the adverse effects of climate change. This study was conducted at Sofi district, Harari Regional State, Ethiopia, to compare the contribution of fruit tree–based agroforestry and monoculture in tackling climate change challenges. To choose two kebeles and 102 household heads, multistage random sampling was used. Soil and biomass measurements were used to collect soil samples and biomass samples. According to the findings of the study, there are significant differences in how agroforestry and monoculture smallholder farmers deal with climate change challenges in terms of livelihood strategies, with agroforestry smallholders being more resilient. Carbon stock accumulation was estimated to be 453.32 mg ha−1 in agroforestry and 124.7 mg ha−1 in monoculture, where no trees were found on monoculture land. The findings of the study demonstrated that carbon stock accumulation was statistically significant between the mean of soil organic carbon agroforestry land use. Agroforestry systems, in general, contribute significantly more to smallholder livelihoods, as well as the socioeconomic system, in the face of climate change concerns. Incorporating smallholders into an agroforestry system for long-term livelihood sustainability requires support in the form of resources, training, and research. In the face of climate change threats, local, regional, and national governments, as well as financial institutions and other agricultural credit providers, must support smallholders.

Labour Force Composition and Labour Shortage in North-Western Romania: A Cross-County Comparison1

Abstract The paper analyses the labour force composition of two adjacent counties in north-west Romania: Maramureș and Sălaj. Regionally, employers stress the lack of available labour force and resort to commuter networks from nearby rural areas and immigrant labour. Why labour shortage? It is argued that Romania’s FDI-reliant export-led growth model factors in. Namely, the growth model’s reliance on low-cost labour that reduces employment incentives to a minimum (often minimum wage) and employment in repetitive labour-intensive activities make the prospect less attractive. If technological upgrading – requiring skilled employees – is absent, regional labour availability tends to be an issue. Alternative subsistence methods are favoured: seasonal transnational migration, household agricultural subsistence and remittances from relatives. Tying livelihood to families and households, these methods pool resources to replace (even if in part) wage labour under global market-dependency conditions.

Climate Change, Extreme Weather, and Intimate Partner Violence in East African Agrarian-Based Economies.

Severe weather events can be a catalyst for intimate partner violence, particularly in agricultural settings. This research explores the association between weather and violence in parts of East Africa that rely on subsistence farming. We used IPUMS-DHS data from Uganda in 2006, Zimbabwe in 2010, and Mozambique in 2011 for intimate partner violence frequency and EM-DAT data to identify weather events by region in the year of and year prior to IPUMS-DHS data collection. This work is grounded in a conceptual framework that illustrates the mechanisms through which violence increases. We used logistic regression to estimate the odds of reporting violence in regions with severe weather events. The odds of reporting violence were 25% greater in regions with severe weather compared to regions without in Uganda (OR = 1.25, 95% CI: 1.11-1.41), 38% greater in Zimbabwe (OR = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.13-1.70), and 91% greater in Mozambique (OR = 1.91, 95% CI: 1.64-2.23). Our results add to the growing body of evidence showing that extreme weather can increase women's and girls' vulnerability to violence. Moreover, this analysis demonstrates that climate justice and intimate partner violence must be addressed together.

Creating the ‘Rice Bowl of India’: Examining the political economy of groundwater-led agrarian transformation in dryland India

This article explores the political economy of groundwater-led agrarian transformation in dryland India through the expansion of groundwater irrigation and rice production since the 1990s. Within this process, I speak to aspirations by subsistence farmers and imaginaries by state governments for agricultural commercialisation via expanding and investing in irrigation infrastructures. In India, this has largely been driven by private and decentralised investments by smallholder farmers. Theoretically adding to the literature on water infrastructures, development aspirations and groundwater governance, I find how farmer aspirations of rice cultivation and associations of the crop with food security and status drove the debt-laden and capital-intensive rapid adoption of groundwater irrigation in dryland Telangana, aided by specific discourses and electricity subsidies policies post the formation of the newest state in India in 2014. I find that political discourses of historical inequalities over water in the struggle for state formation of Telangana in 2014 mobilised electricity subsidies as a key lever to re-imagine the state as a rice bowl of India through groundwater expansion, producing uneven political economy and ecological repercussions for farmers. This article finds that while rice production increased in a short period in Telangana, it came at the expense of widespread well failures and indebtedness at the farmer and village level colliding with the fragile semi-arid climate and hard rock aquifer setting in the state, deepening distress and decay from depleted water infrastructures and failed aspirations.

Empowerment of Tribal Communities Through Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Path to Sustainable Progress

Tribal communities worldwide face various challenges related to economic development, education, healthcare, and cultural preservation. The intersection of innovation and entrepreneurship offers a transformative approach to address these challenges while respecting cultural heritage. This article explores how innovative business models and entrepreneurship can contribute to traditionally preserve the occupation, economic empowerment, sustainable livelihood enhancement, and education and skill development within tribal communities. Three hypotheses are formulated to investigate the relationships between these objectives: 1) Innovation and entrepreneurship contribute to traditional occupation preservation and economic empowerment; 2) Entrepreneurial initiatives provide sustainable livelihood options beyond subsistence agriculture; and 3) Innovation in education and skill development enhances access to training and opportunities for tribal youth. By examining these hypotheses, this article contributes to a comprehensive understanding of how innovation and entrepreneurship can foster sustainable progress while preserving the rich heritage of tribal communities. Keywords: Innovation, Entrepreneurship, Economic Empowerment, Sustainable Development

Produce or Buy: Impacts of Citrus Farming and Crop Diversification on Household Dietary Diversity in Guangxi, China

In recent decades, China has made significant strides in food and nutrition security, yet challenges persist in the western rural regions, especially in Guangxi. Farming households in this area face heightened vulnerability due to limited arable land and environmental hazards, leading to increased efforts to boost income through horticultural crop farming. This study explores the impact of citrus farming and crop diversification on household dietary diversity within the context of the existing literature, examining trade-offs between subsistence and income-generating farming. Using OLS regression techniques and a mediating effect model, the analysis focuses on distinct contexts within citrus farming, utilizing survey data from households engaged in the cultivation of both citrus and non-citrus. Results reveal that while citrus cultivation moderately contributes to dietary diversity, its primary influence lies in encouraging farmers to diversify food purchases, with the mediating effect from market purchases exceeding 50%. Diversifying crop production, including staple crops and vegetables alongside citrus, proves more effective in enhancing dietary diversity among citrus farming households. Crop diversification positively influences dietary diversity, partially addressing household self-sufficiency. While extensive crop diversification may not be the ultimate solution to food security challenges, promoting specific diversification systems shows promise in the context of sustainable agriculture goals.

Agricultural certification, market access and rural economic growth: Evidence from poverty-stricken counties in China

Long-term economic growth in impoverished regions has been a critical research and policy concern. Smallholder farmers require access to modern marketing and commercialization channels to transition from subsistence farming and break the shackles of poverty. Agricultural certification provides an avenue to enhance the value of farm produce and eliminate market impediments. This paper examines the impact of an agricultural certification policy implemented in China on the economic growth of poor counties. A two-way fixed-effects model was utilized along with an instrumental variable approach. We find that the agricultural certification policy contributes to economic growth in these areas and that the effects are robust to various biases and endogeneity concerns. The policy fosters rural economic growth by increasing product premiums and employment opportunities. The effects are more pronounced in non-minority counties or those with greater market access. Additionally, the policy yields favorable effects on the surrounding air quality.

Enhancing adaptation to climate change by fostering collective action groups among smallholders in Punjab, Pakistan

Climate change adaptation is increasingly recognized by subsistence farmers in Pakistan. The problem of climate change is severe, and smallholders are often resource constrained when it comes to adapting to it. However, such constraints can be overcome through collective responses. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the impact of collective action among smallholder farmers to determine how it influences local adaptation processes. This study explores the impact of farmer’s collective action groups (CAGs) on adopting climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices in poverty-stricken areas of rural Punjab, Pakistan. The data was collected through a cross-sectional survey, and for the analysis purpose, the Recursive bivariate probit regression (RBP) model was employed. The first stage estimates of RBP models suggest that the farmer’s decision to participate in CAGs is mainly influenced by factors such as education, credit access, climate change risk perception, and peer influence. The second stage estimates showed a positive and significant impact of farmers’ participation in collective action groups on adopting climate change adaptation strategies across all three models. The study concludes that the farmers participating in collective action groups have a higher climate change adaptation level. It is recommended that the pro-poor policies be designed to negate the entry barriers, facilitate the inclusion of the farmers in the collective action groups, and enhance climate change adaptation among smallholders.

Assessment of Socio-economic Impact of Human-wildlife Conflict on Agriculture: A Case of Smallholder and Subsistence Farmers in Eastern Bhutan

Human-wildlife conflicts are a great concern in where ecosystem services are shared between humans and wildlife animals. This paper examines the socio-economic impacts of human-wildlife conflicts. A descriptive survey design was employed in this study. Primary data were collected by using a simple random sample from 120 households. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics including frequency and percentages. The study results showed that there is a substantial social and economic impact on the smallholder and marginal farmers through the loss of crops due to wild animals. The majority of farmers (23%) had incurred annual household economic loss ranging from US$49-US$59 per household.

Reuse of sediment as a soil conditioner in a semiarid region dominated by subsistence farming: sediment characterization at the regional scale and effects on maize crop

PurposeThe increasing demand for fertilizers and their rising prices has led to the search for new nutrient sources, especially in rural areas where family farming predominates. In this study, we assessed the potential of reusing sediment deposited in surface reservoirs as a soil conditioner in a semiarid region, focusing on two features: the characterization of sediment physicochemical properties at the regional scale and the effect of the substrate containing sediment on the growth and physiology of maize.MethodsSediment from the beds of 14 reservoirs was investigated, and two of them were used for the preparation of substrate for maize cultivation. Differences between the physicochemical properties of the sediments were analyzed using ANOVA and Tukey’s test at a significance level of 0.05. The experimental design of the plant experiment was entirely randomized, in a factorial arrangement of two sources and four doses of sediment: 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the economic dose of 100 t ha−1 previously proposed in the study region. Two treatments were considered as controls: a substrate containing only soil and a treatment containing soil and chemical fertilizer. The data for each treatment were submitted independently considering the doses and sediment sources, and the means were compared by Tukey’s test.ResultsIn general, nutrient contents were higher in the sediment of the surface reservoirs than in the soil. For instance, the concentrations of nitrogen and potassium were three to 10 times higher in the sediment, compared to the soil, and the organic matter content was up to six times higher. In the plant experiment, the dose and source of the sediments influenced all of the analyzed variables. The addition of sediments to the soil increased the chlorophyll content, photosynthesis rate, and growth of the leaves in relation to the treatment containing only soil. There were no significant differences between the biomass production and the plants’ nutrient extraction with the largest dose of the most enriched sediment when compared to the treatment with chemical fertilizer.ConclusionsThe experiment of maize plant growth showed the feasibility of using sediment deposited in reservoirs as a soil conditioner due to the enrichment of nutrients, organic matter, and fine particles. Therefore, sediment reuse has potential to improve livelihoods and food security, as well as contributing to a circular economy. However, prior analysis is required to avoid soil contamination and to set the most appropriate sediment dose, due to the high spatial variability of the sediment characteristics.

Ethnolinguistic associations and genetic diversity of rice landraces in Nagaland, India

Societal Impact StatementPreserving and conserving crop landraces, tended by indigenous farming communities, is crucial for future food security. This research focused on rice landrace diversity in the north‐eastern Himalayan region of Nagaland, India, where Naga communities cultivate rice according to their dietary and cultural preferences. Rice diversity is closely linked to the region's ethnolinguistic and ecological variety. On‐farm conservation, in collaboration with indigenous communities, is imperative to protect these germplasm resources. Involving these communities actively in conservation efforts will safeguard their traditional knowledge, endorse sustainable farming practices, and enhance the resilience of local agricultural systems.Summary Understanding the genetic diversity and cultural significance of crop landraces is crucial for their conservation and sustainable utilization. This study focused on rice landraces from Nagaland in north‐eastern India to assess their genetic diversity and explore their associations with ethnolinguistic groups. We collected 78 rice landraces from Nagaland and a small part of Manipur and conducted microsatellite genotyping for genetic analysis. We integrated social anthropology and population genetics analyses of rice landraces to glean insights into the genetic diversity, population structure, and ethnolinguistic history of rice cultivation in Nagaland. The study revealed the rich cultural significance of rice landraces among the Nagas. Farmers practiced small‐scale subsistence farming, maintaining diverse rice landraces. Naming conventions were based on factors such as seed source, color, grain type, and ecological suitability. Rice landraces played important roles in ethnic cultures, festivals, and religious ceremonies. Genetic analysis identified significant diversity, with 277 alleles across 69 loci and a moderate gene diversity of 0.57. Two distinct sub‐populations were identified, with one dominated by Chakhesang and Angami Nagas and the other by Sümi and Lotha accessions. Differentiation was observed between lowland and upland cultivars, with one sub‐population comprising exclusively lowland varieties. Cultural factors and cultivation practices influenced population differentiation, with ethnicity and ecotype having a significant impact. The study also highlighted the correlation between ethnolinguistic differentiation and the indica–japonica structuring of rice landraces. Different ethnic groups in Nagaland had distinct cultivation practices, contributing to genetic differentiation. Overall, this research emphasizes the need to preserve rice landraces and associated traditional knowledge for future improvements and cultural heritage conservation. It provides insights into genetic diversity, cultural significance, and the relationship between genetic diversity, cultural practices, and agricultural traditions.

Apes and agriculture

Non-human great apes – chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, and orangutans – are threatened by agricultural expansion, particularly from rice, cacao, cassava, maize, and oil palm cultivation. Agriculture replaces and fragments great ape habitats, bringing them closer to humans and often resulting in conflict. Though the impact of agriculture on great apes is well-recognized, there is still a need for a more nuanced understanding of specific contexts and associated negative impacts on habitats and populations. Here we review these contexts and their implications for great apes. We estimate that within their African and South-East Asian ranges, there are about 100 people for each great ape. Given that most apes live outside strictly protected areas and the growing human population and increasing demand for resources in these landscapes, it will be challenging to balance the needs of both humans and great apes. Further habitat loss is expected, particularly in Africa, where compromises must be sought to re-direct agricultural expansion driven by subsistence farmers with small fields (generally <0.64 ha) away from remaining great ape habitats. To promote coexistence between humans and great apes, new approaches and financial models need to be implemented at local scales. Overall, optimized land use planning and effective implementation, along with strategic investments in agriculture and wildlife conservation, can improve the synergies between conservation and food production. Effective governance and conservation financing are crucial for optimal outcomes in both conservation and food security. Enforcing forest conservation laws, engaging in trade policy discussions, and integrating policies on trade, food security, improved agricultural techniques, and sustainable food systems are vital to prevent further decline in great ape populations. Saving great apes requires a thorough consideration of specific agricultural contexts.

Fostering greater recognition of Caribbean traditional plant knowledge

The Caribbean is a hotspot of biological and cultural diversity, manifested in traditional plant knowledge of Afrodescendant peoples and other ethnicities. To strengthen the visibility of this knowledge in research, education, and policy making, we propose an eight-step action plan centered on reciprocal relationships with Caribbean plant stewards, especially subsistence farmers.

Impact of water level change on shifts in subsistence regimes revealed by anthropogenic fire in the lower Yangtze basin during the Mid-Holocene

The lower Yangtze is one of the regions of origin of rice agriculture but it is unclear if environmental change drove the transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture. Long-term and continuous lacustrine records of anthropogenic fire are a more effective means of addressing this problem than the fragmentary terrestrial records available for the lower Yangtze region. We constructed a Holocene fire history revealed by records of black carbon content (BCC) and grain size of the sediments of Lake Nanyi in the lower Yangtze. Our results show the following: 1) Peaks in fire activity occurred during ∼8400–6500 (fire peak P1) and ∼ 1100–0 cal BP (fire peak P2), while weaker fire activity occurred during ∼6500–1100 cal BP (S2). 2) This temporal pattern of fire activity, with a double peak (P1-S2-P2), was asynchronous from east to west across the lower Yangtze. The warm and humid climate would not have caused intense fires and the reduction of forest during ∼8400–6500 and ∼ 1100–0 cal BP. Therefore, we suggest that anthropogenic ignitions, corresponding to pronounced population fluctuations after 8400 cal BP, dominated the regional fire activity. Combined with archaeological evidence, the inverse relationship between the agricultural and population levels and fire intensity during the mid-Holocene suggests that fire intensity at this time was the result of the diversity of landscape types associated with prehistoric subsistence patterns, rather than the magnitude of anthropogenic activity. Combined with sea level, rainfall and archaeological evidence, we propose a mechanism whereby asynchronous water-level rise during ∼8400–6500 cal BP forced the migration of humans to the foothills where they often used fire to modify the landscape as part of a broad-spectrum subsistence pattern. Whereas, water-level fall after 6500 cal BP expanded the area of open ground for human settlement, and in this less diverse landscape, less use was made of fire in agricultural subsistence. Overall, our study reveals how regional water-level, driven by sea-level rise and extreme rainfall, delayed the transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture in the lower Yangtze region.