Subsurface Data Research Articles

Neogene to modern foreland basin development in the Sub-Andean zone of southern Bolivia and northern Argentina, 21−23°S

The Sub-Andean retroarc region is a unique example of an active continental-scale retroarc foreland basin system. Heavily targeted for hydrocarbon exploration, the region hosts a large volume of subsurface data coupled to surface studies dedicated to refining its evolution in time and space. This paper presents a regional correlation of stratigraphic markers from seismic reflection and well logs across the Sub-Andean foothills at 23−21°S in southern Bolivia and northern Argentina, which reveals the contrasting along-strike history of Mesozoic to Cenozoic tectonics that preceded the foreland basin setting. Supported by published geochronological data and new zircon U-Pb maximum depositional ages, we describe the depositional transition from pre-Andean to Andean stratigraphy and discrete episodes of foreland basin subsidence and shortening. Based on interpreted stratigraphic breaks, we define the extent and stepwise evolution of this foreland basin, which was characterized by the progressive eastward migration of foreland basin depozones. Based on restored thickness profiles, we present flexural models of basin subsidence for the Sub-Andean foothills region. The modeling of discrete episodes of foreland basin subsidence refines the widely accepted bimodal elastic strength in the foreland basin at 21−23°S, which is weaker in the western ranges (∼20 km effective elastic thickness) and stronger eastward (>40 km). Modeling results also reveal minimum values of subsidence rates (up to 1.2 mm/yr) in the sequential foredeep depozones and suggest that the modeled tectonic load migration—as constrained by the record of syntectonic strata—probably increased over time through the incorporation of Sub-Andean rocks into the orogenic wedge.

Application of Generalized Reciprocal Method on 2D Seismic Refraction Data in Mt. Manglayang, West Java

The imaging of shallow subsurface structures, weathered rock thickness and velocity propagation distribution of the rocks can be identified by seismic refraction. This method is one of the geophysical exploration methods utilizing refracted wave once it reaches the boundary of subsurface layer. In this research we used the generalized reciprocal method (GRM) as one of the robust processing methods in analyzing subsurface data. This method was chosen due to its accuracy in interpreting shallow subsurface layer with highly undulating refractors by determining time velocity analysis, XY optimum distances, and time depth analysis, then, the expected depth values can be achieved. The acquisition of data for this research was conducted using 13 geophones with forward and reverse sources, the data were then picked to get travel time values and inverted to obtain real geological setting of the earth. The results were interpreted as 2 layers, the first layer had a velocity distribution of 499.289 m/s which was identified as a weathered layer with a thickness of about 4.74 meters, whereas the second layer was interpreted as clay rock with velocity distribution of 1270.433 m/s with the thickness reached up to 16 meters.
 Keywords: generalized reciprocal method, 2D seismic refraction

Kinematic modeling of neotectonic thrusts at the Andean orogenic front (southern Precordillera, Argentina)

The south-central Andes located between 32°-33° S are considered to be a transitional zone between the flat-lying and the normal subduction zones of the Nazca Plate. The active mountain-building processes are mainly concentrated between the Andean eastern foothills and the adjacent broken foreland, as highlighted by crustal seismicity, historic destructive earthquakes, and Quaternary-active contractional structures. Between 32° 10′ and 32° 40′ S, the Andean orogenic front is exposed at the Las Peñas-Las Higueras range, where east- and west-verging thrusts interact, resulting in an antithetic linkage transfer zone. We built kinematically-balanced structural sections through the integration of surface and subsurface data (2D seismic lines) to achieve a 3D characterization of the Quaternary-active thrusts and to estimate shortening rates of ∼1.8–3.4 mm/a during the last ∼8.5 Ma, thus extending the spatial and temporal penetration achieved by surface geology data. Our results indicate that the main east-verging thrusts detach at a depth of ∼10 km within Paleozoic basement rocks. This outcome implies larger potential rupture areas than if rooted at Neogene layers. West-verging thrusts present detachment levels at ∼5 km, also linked to Paleozoic basement rocks. The analysis of 2D seismic lines has also contributed to the recognition of blind thrusts without a morphologic signature, which could be regarded as relevant seismogenic structures.

Distributed wide-field electromagnetic method for coal mining goaf detection in a complex urban environment: A case study in Jinan, China

Urban expansion has resulted in many proposed projects located over coal mining zones, which has highlighted the importance of detecting the spatial scope and water abundance of goafs before the commencement of construction work. Although electromagnetic (EM) methods have proven effective for goaf detection, their applications in intensely noisy and urbanized environments remain limited. To address this challenge, we evaluate an investigation of a coal mining goaf in Jinan, China, using the distributed wide-field EM (DWFEM) method. A third-order [Formula: see text] sequence pseudorandom signal with 39 survey frequencies is transmitted to achieve long-time data acquisition at each station. Unlike the controlled-source audio-frequency magnetotellurics method, the DWFEM records only the electric field [Formula: see text] component. The synthetic model tests and field data demonstrate the consistency of the [Formula: see text] apparent resistivity and the Cagniard resistivity in the far field. The long-time acquisition and 1C recording greatly improve data quality and exploration efficiency. We also use an all-angle resistivity calculation formula and an electrode layout method parallel to the wire source to obtain electrical connections in different directions. The DWFEM inversion results are obtained using the 1D Gauss-Newton iterative method under a plane-wave assumption. By interpolating the data from different measurement stations, we image resistivity depth profiles and obtain 3D subsurface electrical data for the subsurface from 0 to 1000 m. We interpret the obtained profiles with geologic and mining information, revealing two significant water-enriched goaf areas. Validation is performed using seismic data and drill cores. The results significantly enhance our understanding of the characteristics of the coal mine under our project and highlight the applicability of the DWFEM for detecting goafs in complex urban environments.

EXPERIMENTING TIN DATA STRUCTURE FOR REPRESENTING PLANE SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SPATIAL OBJECTS - PRELIMINARY WORK

Abstract. Understanding and analyzing complex spatial objects involves the integration of surface, terrain, and subsurface data into 3D spatial models. However, describing and efficiently analyzing the connections between these data model is particularly challenging. This study aims to generate TIN data structure that enable the 3D representation of surface terrain subsurface integration. Furthermore, to ensure accurate representation within a unified 3D model, spatial relationships between the TIN data model could be obtained. Consequently, three – dimensional Triangular Irregular Networks (3D TIN) mesh of spatial objects representations and indexing structures were created. The integration of spatial objects, encompassing surface, terrain, and subsurface elements, is realized through a unified model. This synergy is achieved by combining the distinct 2D and 3D topology structures of each component. The resulting comprehensive model captures the intricate relationships and interactions within the spatial environment. This study provides additional insight into the representation and analysis of surface, terrain, and subsurface management in 3D spatial models. Hence, better decision making, resource management, underground utility installations, and evaluation of spatial objects will be made possible in our future work.

Reservoir characteristics of the middle Eocene Avanah Formation in Erbil governorate, northern Iraq: Integration of outcrop and subsurface data

The current work investigate the petrophysical characteristics of the Middle Eocene Avanah Formation in the Erbil Governorate using IP software to analyze the well data, integrated with the 
 petrographic investigation of the formation in the nearest outcrop in the Gomaspan section. Well logging data revealed that the main lithology of the formation is limestone and dolostone while the lithology in the Gomaspan section is composed of limestone, dolomitic limestone, marly dolomitic limestone, and thin beds of shale. The lower dolomitic unit in the subsurface section of the formation is believed to be the most suitable reservoir unit due to good petrophysical characteristics including, low water saturation, high porous medium, and the presence of movable hydrocarbon. To measure porosities, a variety of well logging techniques were used in this study. The investigated formation was divided into Avanah dense (limestone unit) and Avanah porous (dolostone unit) based on their porous components. The petrographic study shows that most pore types of the formation are secondary and represented mainly by vuggy, moldic, intercrystalline, and fracture types. Most of the fractures in the upper limestone units are filled by calcite cement. The study claimed that the lower part of the formation (dolostone unit) in both sections is considered a good reservoir.

Outcrops as windows to petroleum systems: Insights from the southern Bida Basin, Nigeria

The study assessed petroleum systems in the southern Bida Basin, Nigeria, focusing on the Cretaceous sediments. Reservoirs comprise Lokoja and Patti Formation sandstones, while shales, claystone, and siltstone serve as source rocks and stratigraphic traps/seals. Detailed studies delineating the key elements of the petroleum systems in the basin have not been conducted due to a lack of subsurface data. The goal of the current study was to use field observations, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and geochemical and geomechanical data to evaluate key components of petroleum systems in the southern Bida Basin. The results presented in this investigation are intended to attain specific objectives, especially those lacking in the basin's study sections. Petrophysical analysis revealed that the Lokoja Sandstone has porosity of 37%–39.5% and moderate permeability of 23.22–42.29 mD. The Patti Formation sandstone reservoirs exhibited high porosity (38%–42%) and moderate to good permeability (31.54–66.48 mD), suggesting good potential reservoirs. SEM results revealed intragranular pores and micro-fractures in the Patti Shale, whereas the sandstone reservoirs in the Lokoja and Patti formations displayed fractures, facilitating hydrocarbon migration. Quartz was the dominant mineral in the sandstone units of both formations. XRD analysis revealed that brittle and clay minerals influenced the microstructure of Patti Shale. Geochemical analysis indicated promising petroleum potential in the Patti Shale, with a total organic carbon (TOC) content of 1.87 wt%, free hydrocarbon from kerogen (S1) of 0.41 mg/g, hydrogen index (HI) of 0.75 mg HC/g TOC, and production index (PI) of 0.17. The Patti and Lokoja formations' shale, claystone, and siltstone exhibited sealing potential, with a plasticity index of 24–35 and coefficient permeability of 2.8 × 10−4- 3.6 × 10−4 cm/s. Field studies, XRD, geochemical data, and geomechanical index values have confirmed the key components of the petroleum system, which in turn facilitate hydrocarbon generation, migration, accumulation, and entrapment in the basin.

A Comprehensive Assessment of Submarine Landslides and Mass Wasting Processes Offshore Southern California

AbstractIt is critical to characterize submarine landslide hazards near dense coastal populations, especially in areas with active faults, which can trigger slope failure, subsequent tsunamis, and damage seabed infrastructure during earthquake shaking. Offshore southern California, numerous marine geophysical surveys have been conducted over the past decade, and high‐resolution bathymetric and subsurface data now cover about 60 percent of the total region between Point Conception and the United States‐Mexico border from the California coast out to the base of Patton Escarpment ∼200 km offshore. In a comprehensive compilation and interpretive mapping effort, we find evidence of seafloor failure throughout offshore southern California with nearly 1,500 submarine landslide‐related features, including 63 discrete slide deposits with debris and >1,400 slide‐related scarps. In our analysis, we highlight new mapping of submarine landslides in Catalina Basin, the Del Mar slide, the San Gabriel slide complex, and the 232 km2 San Nicolas slide, the largest area of any known submarine landslide mass offshore southern California. Analysis of the spatial distribution of submarine landslide features suggests that most mapped slide features are located relatively near coastal sediment sources, particularly during sea‐level lowstand conditions, which underscores the importance of sediment supply and sediment accumulation on low‐gradient slopes as failure preconditioning processes. Tectonically driven uplift at shelf edges and along basin flanks is another key preconditioning factor, and our results also suggest that earthquakes along active faults trigger mass wasting, especially for repeated, small‐scale failures on tectonically steepened slopes.

Geological, geophysical, and geotechnical approaches on the slip surface investigation on Cisumdawu Highway, West Java, Indonesia

This study used geological, geophysical, and geotechnical methods to investigate the causes of landslides in a newly established Cileunyi Sumedang Dawuan (Cisumdawu) Highway, Sumedang Regency, West Java Province. A combination of geological field observation, subsurface geoelectric resistivity-based survey, and borehole drilling were applied to obtain the subsurface data of a research area. A total of 10 boreholes were drilled to collect geoengineering data, including the soil material and N-SPT value for validation purposes. The soil hardness and resistivity were measured and compared to establish the relationship between resistivity and engineering properties. The result revealed that percolating water zone in the permeable loose soil was located above the impermeable layer, estimated as a slip surface. The analysed subsurface measurement and borehole data showed that the depth of the slip surface is between 26-27m. The study is important to determine the mitigation steps for the highway slope stability construction.

Musandam peninsula evolution, structural styles, and petroleum implications: new insights from surface and subsurface data from northern Oman Mountains (UAE, Ras Al Khaimah)

Musandam peninsula evolution, structural styles, and petroleum implications: new insights from surface and subsurface data from northern Oman Mountains (UAE, Ras Al Khaimah)

New phosphorus losses via tile drainage depend on fertilizer form, placement, and timing.

Agricultural phosphorus (P) losses are harmful to water quality, but knowledge gaps about the importance of fertilizer management practices on new (recently applied) sources of P may limit P loss mitigation efforts. Weighted regression models applied to subsurface tile drainage water quality data enabled estimating the new P losses associated with 155 P applications in Ohio and Indiana, USA. Daily discharge and dissolved reactive P (DRP) and total P (TP) loads were used to detect increases in P loss following each application which was considered new P. The magnitude of new P losses was small relative to fertilizer application rates, averaging 79.3g DRP ha-1 and 96.1g TP ha-1 , or<3% of P applied. The eight largest new P losses surpassed 330g DRP ha-1 or 575g TP ha-1 . New P loss mitigation strategies should focus on broadcast liquid manure applications; on average, manure applications caused greater new P losses than inorganic fertilizers, and surface broadcast applications were associated with greater new P losses than injected or incorporated applications. Late fall applications risked having large new P losses applications. On an annual basis, new P contributed an average of 14% of DRP and 5% of TP losses from tile drains, which is much less than previous studies that included surface runoff, suggesting that tile drainage is relatively buffered with regard to new P losses. Therefore old (preexisting soil P) P sources dominated tile drain P losses, and P loss reduction efforts will need to address this source.

Enhancing Subsurface Soil Moisture Forecasting: A Long Short-Term Memory Network Model Using Weather Data

Subsurface soil moisture is a primary determinant for root development and nutrient transportation in the soil and affects the tractability of agricultural vehicles. A statistical forecasting model, Vector AutoRegression (VAR), and a Long Short-Term Memory network (LSTM) were developed to forecast the subsurface soil moisture at a 20 cm depth using 9 years of historical weather data and subsurface soil moisture data from Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA. A time series analysis showed that the weather data and soil moisture have a stationary seasonal tendency and demonstrated that soil moisture can be forecasted from weather data. The VAR model estimates volumetric soil moisture of one-day ahead with an R2, MAE (m3m−3), MSE (m6m−6), and RMSE (m3m−3) of 0.698, 0.0561, 0.0046, and 0.0382 for 2021 corn cropping season, whereas the LSTM model using inputs of previous seven days yielded R2, MAE (m3m−3), MSE (m6m−6), and RMSE (m3m−3) of 0.998, 0.00237, 0.00002, and 0.00382, respectively as tested for cropping season of 2020 and 0.973, 0.00368, 0.00003 and 0.00577 as tested for the cropping season of 2021. The LSTM model presents a viable data-driven alternative to traditional statistical models for forecasting subsurface soil moisture.

A biological ocean data reformatting effort

Biological ocean data collected from ships find reuse in aggregations of historical data. These data are heavily relied upon to document long term change, validate satellite algorithms for ocean biology and are useful in assessing the performance of autonomous platforms and biogeochemical models. Existing aggregate products have largely been restricted to the surface ocean, omit physical data or have limited biological data. We present the first version of a BIOlogical ocean data reforMATting Effort (BIO-MATE) to begin to fill a gap in subsurface bio-physical data aggregates in a reproducible way. BIO-MATE uses open-source R software that reformats openly sourced published datasets from oceanographic voyages. These reformatted biological and physical data from underway sensors, profiling sensors, pigments analysis and particulate organic carbon analysis are stored in an interoperable BIO-MATE data product for easy access and use. Specific QA/QC protocols can now be easily applied to the BIO-MATE data product to support a variety of surface and subsurface applications.

Analysis of subsurface data to characterize neotectonic structures in the Pampas plains, southwestern sector of the San Guillermo Elevated Block, Argentina

Analysis of subsurface data to characterize neotectonic structures in the Pampas plains, southwestern sector of the San Guillermo Elevated Block, Argentina

Innovative methodology for estimating Mountain-Front Recharge in data-scarce regions: A case study in Mexico City

Despite the critical role mountainous regions play in the hydrological cycle, the scarcity of subsurface hydrogeological data hampers accurate estimations of mountain-front recharge (MFR) and its components. This research proposes a cost-effective and replicable methodology for the preliminary estimation of MFR components in conditions of data scarcity. The proposed methodology, encompassing three phases, involves developing a hydrological conceptual model, creating a rainfall-runoff model, and estimating MFR values and their components (surface mountain-front recharge and mountain-block recharge); it enhances understanding of hydrologic processes in mountain zones by interpreting relationships among precipitation, altitude, and geology, influencing variations in recharge and water table position. A key contribution is the methodology's replicability in any mountainous area, even in the absence of detailed information, such as in protected natural areas. A case study is presented by estimating MFR in the Conservation Area of Mexico City (officially known as Suelo de Conservación), composed by the mountain ranges of Sierra de las Cruces and Chichinautzin Volcanic Field. The results emphasize the distinct distribution of MFR components and water table position in the two mountain regions, suggesting a need for a tailored approach to water management in the basin. The proposed methodology is cost-effective to understand the water dynamics in data-scarce regions, contributing to mountain-front recharge management.

Lateral shift from turbidite- to contourite-dominated continental slope, a case study from southeast Brazil slope

New bathymetric and subsurface data from the Santos Basin, offshore southeast Brazil, reveal sharp lateral morphological variations facing the margin-parallel (along-margin) flow of the Antarctic Intermediate Water. The data, derived from 3D Pre-Stack Depth Migrated (PSDM) seismic reflection volumes, show on a ~100 km long Southern segment slope gullies, mass transport deposits, and scars. These morphologies sharply shift laterally to a ~50 km long Northern segment, typified by a smooth relief built of plastered contourite drifts with occasional elongated depressions. We examine this sharp lateral shift in the morphology of bottom current indicators in view of the hydrodynamical regime, sediment sources, and their distribution pattern. Results indicate that the sharp lateral morphological shift is attributed to (1) a 30° change in slope orientation, and (2) a northward increase in the across-margin velocity component of the Intermediate Water Boundary Current (IWBC). Subsurface data suggest this flow pattern has persisted since the mid-Miocene. In this case study, the lateral morphological shifts under contemporary hydrodynamic conditions emphasize the importance of understanding the coupling between ocean bottom currents and the seafloor in any marine environment.

Structural analysis, tectonic fracturing modeling, and kinematic evolution along the South Atlas Fault at the northern border of the Tinghir-Errachidia-Boudenib basin (Pre-African Trough, Morocco)

The structural evolution of the High Atlas orogenic belt is characterized by the formation of the thrust propagation folds. The exploration and understanding of the southern central-eastern High Atlas orogenic wedge system are still in their infancy. The significance of the growth of the Tinghir-Errachidia-Boudenib foreland basin (TEB) is underestimated due to limited constraints on surface structural styles and kinematics analysis, as well as insufficient surface data. This question is addressed by using several multi-sources and multi-scale data including a geological map constrained from fieldwork and kinematic analysis, combined with subsurface magnetic data. The integration and analysis of these data provided a comprehensive understanding tectonic fracturing model and reconstruct the kinematic evolution of the northern border of the TEB basin. Analysis of surface and subsurface data identify E−, ENE-to WNW- trending Jbel Tisdar and Jbel Rhouir anticlines interpreted as a fault-propagation fold. Magnetic investigations show a positive anomaly superposed on the hinge of the Jbel Tisdar and the Jbel Rhouir anticlines indicating a Triassic and/or Paleozoic uplifted magnetic materials. Along the southern Atlas margin, brittle tectonic is represented by E−to ENE-reverse faults with a small dextral strike-slip component and NNE-to NE-trending strike-slip faults with a reverse component and associated with NW- trending ones. Fracturing mechanism fault-propagation fold highlights three fracture sets: (i) syn-folding E−trending axial fractures; (ii) syn-folding NW- trending transverse fractures and (iii) late-folding NE-trending fractures. Fault kinematics analyses provide a transpressional tectonic regime, responsible for the structuring (folding, faulting, fracturing) of the Jbel Tisdar and the Jbel Rhouir fault-propagation fold, developed in response to Alpine compressional inversion of the central-eastern High Atlas belt.

Delineation of Nickel Laterite Deposits in “DCV” Block Southeast Sulawesi Based on Data Analysis of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Method

The need for nickel is very intensive in the development of upstream to downstream industries so that domestic consumption of nickel ore will increase in the coming years, therefore domestic downstream is increasingly being improved. Overcoming the problem of the high demand for nickel in Indonesia can be done by conducting exploration and exploitation to support the downstream of nickel. Exploration of nickel laterite can be accomplished with geophysical methods that aim to obtain subsurface data from nickel laterite deposits. The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) geophysical method is one of the non-destructive methods that can be applied to determine the subsurface conditions of nickel laterite deposits based on physical properties in the form of dielectric constants and reflection patterns and amplitude contrasts produced on radargrams. The nickel laterite deposits can be separated into 4 layers based on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data analysis: bedrock, saprolite, limonite, and topsoil. Based on GPR measurements, the average dielectric constant value of topsoil is 6.8 mS/m, the limonite layer is 10.87 mS/m, the saprolite layer is 12.37 mS/m, and bedrock is 7.87 mS/m. It can be seen that the saprolite layer has a high conductivity so that the dielectric constant value is also high, this is influenced by the very high nickel content in this layer. The depth of bedrock in the research area varies from 20 - 40 meters, the thickness of topsoil is dominated in the value range of 3.6 - 5 meters, while the thickness of the laterite layer which is the main target of nickel laterite mining includes saprolite and limonite layers which have varying values of 15 - 40 meters where the distribution of the thickness of this layer is in the eastern and central parts of the research area.

Stratigraphic architecture of the Belly River Group (Campanian, Cretaceous) in the plains of southern Alberta: Revisions and updates to an existing model and implications for correlating dinosaur-rich strata.

The Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) Belly River Group (BRG) of southern Alberta has a complex internal stratigraphic architecture derived from differential geometries of its component formations that resulted from regionalized tectonic influences and shifting source areas. A full understanding of BRG architecture has been compromised heretofore by a limited understanding of subsurface data in southwestern- and southeastern-most Alberta. In this study outcrop exposures throughout southern Alberta are tied to reference well logs and subsurface cross-sections allowing a more precise understanding of BRG architecture and how it relates to well-known vertebrate fossil producing areas. Modifications to an existing stratigraphic model of the BRG show that the Oldman and the Dinosaur Park formations have reciprocal north-to-south wedge-shaped geometries and a diachronous contact that become prominently expressed south of Twp 12. The updated model also demonstrates that the Oldman Formation thickens stratigraphically up-section to the south, and that the Foremost-Oldman contact is, essentially, a datum across much of southern Alberta. Identification of the Oldman Formation in the subsurface remains based on its relatively high gamma-ray response in mudstone successions, but it is also recognized that many of its sandstones exhibit relatively low gamma-ray responses like those in underlying and overlying formations. Nomenclature and subdivisions of the Oldman Formation are revised to accommodate this updated understanding, and modifications are also made to the definition of the Judith River-Belly River discontinuity, a newly recognized surface that marks the onset of accommodation and eustatic rise in sea-level in the northern Western Interior Basin at ~76.3 Ma.

Characterization of a structural trap associated with an intrusive complex: the El Trapial oilfield, Neuquén Basin, Argentina

Abstract Volcanic plumbing systems emplaced in sedimentary basins may exert significant mechanical and thermal effects on petroleum systems. The last decade of research has evidenced that igneous intrusions may enhance thermal maturation of organic matter in source rocks and lead to both small- and large-scale structures that can deeply impact fluid migration or trapping. This contribution describes how the emplacement of a whole intrusive complex generated a dome structure of the overburden, which is the main trapping structure of a large producing oilfield. Our case study is the lower Miocene Cerro Bayo de la Sierra Negra (CBSN) intrusive complex, Neuquén Basin, Argentina, associated with the El Trapial oilfield where the main trapping structure is a large domal antiform centred on the CBSN complex. This study integrates the large subsurface dataset produced during the development of the El Trapial oilfield. More than 1200 vertical wells (producers and injectors) have been drilled in the flanks of CBSN complex. In addition, five 3D seismic cubes have been acquired over the years that have been merged and reprocessed into a single volume. Such a dataset allows a detailed characterization of both the structure affecting the Mesozoic strata and the geometry of the intrusive complex. Igneous rocks have been recognized along the entire stratigraphic section. Sill intrusions appear to concentrate in the shale units and the stacking of them has a direct impact on the doming structure generation. Our study allowed us to establish a direct correlation between the distribution of the intrusions and the extent, amplitude and style of doming, showing that the dome structure results from the emplacement of the intrusive complex. We also show that part of the doming is related to intrusions emplaced in the Mesozoic formations of the Neuquén Basin, whereas the other part of the doming is related to deeper structures not imaged on the geophysical data. We estimate that the amplitude of the doming reaches up to c. 500 m. The voluminous subsurface data, combined with exposed outcrops, makes the CBSN complex a world-class case study for showing how the shallow plumbing system of a volcanic complex may control the growth of large-scale trapping structures for various fluids, such as drinkable water, geothermal fluids and hydrocarbons.